Considerable progress in addressing point source (end of pipe) pollution problems has been made, but it is now recognized that further substantial environmental improvements depend on controlling nonpoint source pollution. A watershed approach is being used more frequently to address these problems because traditional regulatory approaches do not focus on nonpoint sources. The watershed approach is organized around the guiding principles of partnerships, geographic focus, and management based on sound science and data. This helps to focus efforts on the highest priority problems within hydrologically-defined geographic areas. Ecological risk assessment is a process to collect, organize, analyze, and present scientific information to improve decision making. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sponsored three watershed assessments and found that integrating the watershed approach with ecological risk assessment increases the use of environmental monitoring and assessment data in decision making. This paper describes the basics of the watershed approach, the ecological risk assessment process, and how these two frameworks can be integrated. The three major principles of watershed ecological risk assessment found to be most useful for increasing the use of science in decision making are (1) using assessment endpoints and conceptual models, (2) holding regular interactions between scientists and managers, and (3) developing a focus for multiple stressor analysis. Examples are provided illustrating how these principles were implemented in these assessments.

The free-flowing Clinch and Powell watershed in Virginia, USA, harbors a high number of endemic mussel and fish species but they are declining or going extinct at an alarming rate. To prioritize resource management strategies with respect to these fauna, a geographical information system was developed and various statistical approaches were used to relate human land uses with available fish, macroinvertebrate, and native mussel assemblage data. Both the Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera (EPT) family-level index, and the fish index of biotic integrity (IBI) were lowest in a subwatershed with the greatest coal mining activity (analysis of variance [ANOVA], p < 0.05). Limited analyses in two other subwatersheds suggested that urban and agricultural land uses within a specified riparian corridor were more related to mussel species richness and fish IBI than land uses in entire catchments. Based on land uses within a riparian corridor of 200 m x 2 km for each biological site in the watershed, fish IBI was inversely related to percent cropland and urban area and positively related to pasture area (stepwise multiple regression, R2 = 0.55, p < 0.05). Sites less than 2 km downstream of urban areas, major highways, or coal mine activities had a significantly lower mean IBI value than those more than 2 km away (ANOVA, p < .05). Land use effects included poorer instream cover and higher substrate embeddedness (t test, p < 0.05). Weaker land use relationships were observed for EPT and mussel species richness. Episodic spills of toxic materials, originating from transportation corridors, mines, and industrial facilities, also have resulted in local extirpations of native species. particularly mussels. The number of co-occurring human activities was directly related to stream elevation in the Clinch River, with more human land uses in headwater areas. Approximately 60% of known U.S. Fish and Wildlife mussel concentration sites in the watershed are located within 2 km of at least two land use sources identified as potentially stressful in our analyses. Our results indicate that a number of land uses and stressors are probably responsible for the decline in native species. However, protection of naturally vegetated riparian corridors may help mitigate some of these effects.

The free-flowing Clinch and Powell River Basin, located in southwestern Virginia, United States, historically had one of the richest assemblages of native fish and freshwater mussels in the world. Nearly half of the species once residing here are now extinct, threatened, or endangered. The United States Environmental Protection Agency's framework for conducting an ecological risk assessment was used to structure a watershed-scale analysis of human land use, in-stream habitat quality, and their relationship to native fish and mussel populations in order to develop future management strategies and prioritize areas in need of enhanced protection. Our analyses indicate that agricultural and urban land uses as well as proximity to mining activities and transportation corridors are inversely related to fish index of biotic integrity (IBI) and mussel species diversity. Forward stepwise multiple regression analyses indicated that coal mining had the most impact on fish IBI followed by percent cropland and urban area in the riparian corridor (R 2 ) 0.55, p ) 0.02); however, these analyses suggest that other site-specific factors are important. Habitat quality measures accounted for as much as approximately half of the variability in fish IBI values if the analysis was limited to sites within a relatively narrow elevation range. These results, in addition to other data collected in this watershed, suggest that nonhabitat-related stressors (e.g., accidental chemical spills) also have significant effects on biota in this basin. The number of cooccurring human land uses was inversely related to fish IBI (r ) -0.49, p < 0.01). Sites with g2 co-occurring land uses had >90% probability of having <2 mussel species present. Our findings predict that many mussel concentration sites are vulnerable to future extirpation. In addition, our results suggest that protection and enhancement of naturally vegetated riparian corridors, better controls of mine effluents and urban runoff, and increased safeguards against accidental chemical spills, as well as reintroduction or augmentation of threatened and endangered species, may help sustain native fish and mussel populations in this watershed.

The Waquoit Bay Watershed ecological risk assessment was performed by an interdisciplinary and interagency workgroup. This paper focuses on the steps taken to formulate the analysis plan for this watershed assessment. The workgroup initially conducted a series of meetings with the general public and local and state managers to determine environmental management objectives for the watershed. The workgroup then decided that more information was needed on the impacts of six stressors: nutrient enrichment, physical alteration of habitat, altered freshwater flow, toxic chemicals, pathogens, and fisheries harvesting. Assessment endpoints were selected to establish the link between environmental management objectives, impacts of stressors, and scientifically measurable endpoints. The following assessment end-points were selected: estuarine eelgrass cover, scallop abundance, finfish diversity and abundance, wetland bird distribution and abundance, piping plover distribution and abundance, tissue contaminant levels, and brook trout distribution and abundance in streams. A conceptual model was developed to show the pathways between human activities, stressors, and ecological effects. The workgroup analyzed comparative risks, by first ranking stressors in terms of their potential risk to biotic resources in the watershed. Then stressors were evaluated by considering the components of stressors (e.g., the stressor chemical pollution included both heavy metals and chlorinated solvents components) in terms of intensity and extensiveness. The workgroup identified nutrient enrichment as the major stressor. Nutrient enrichment comprised both phosphorus enrichment in freshwater ponds and nitrogen enrichment within estuaries. Because phosphorus impacts were being analyzed and mitigated by the Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence, this assessment focused on nitrogen. The process followed to identify the predominant stressor and focus the analyses on nitrogen impacts on eelgrass and scallops will serve as an example of how to increase the use of the findings of a watershed assessment in decision making.

The free-flowing Clinch and Powell watershed in Virginia, USA, harbors a high number of endemic mussel and fish species but they are declining or going extinct at an alarming rate. To prioritize resource management strategies with respect to these fauna, a geographical information system was developed and various statistical approaches were used to relate human land uses with available fish, macroinvertebrate, and native mussel assemblage data. Both the Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera (EPT) family-level index, and the fish index of biotic integrity (IBI) were lowest in a subwatershed with the greatest coal mining activity (analysis of variance [ANOVA], p < 0.05). Limited analyses in two other subwatersheds suggested that urban and agricultural land uses within a specified riparian corridor were more related to mussel species richness and fish IBI than land uses in entire catchments. Based on land uses within a riparian corridor of 200 m x 2 km for each biological site in the watershed, fish IBI was inversely related to percent cropland and urban area and positively related to pasture area (stepwise multiple regression, R2 = 0.55, p < 0.05). Sites less than 2 km downstream of urban areas, major highways, or coal mine activities had a significantly lower mean IBI value than those more than 2 km away (ANOVA, p < .05). Land use effects included poorer instream cover and higher substrate embeddedness (t test, p < 0.05). Weaker land use relationships were observed for EPT and mussel species richness. Episodic spills of toxic materials, originating from transportation corridors, mines, and industrial facilities, also have resulted in local extirpations of native species. particularly mussels. The number of co-occurring human activities was directly related to stream elevation in the Clinch River, with more human land uses in headwater areas. Approximately 60% of known U.S. Fish and Wildlife mussel concentration sites in the watershed are located within 2 km of at least two land use sources identified as potentially stressful in our analyses. Our results indicate that a number of land uses and stressors are probably responsible for the decline in native species. However, protection of naturally vegetated riparian corridors may help mitigate some of these effects.

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Watershed management processes continue to call for more science and improved decision making that take into account the full range of stakeholder perspectives. Increasingly, the core principles of ecological risk assessment (i.e., the development and use of assessment endpoints and conceptual models, conducting exposure and effects analysis) are being incorporated and adapted in innovative ways to meet the call for more science. Similarly, innovative approaches to adapting decision analysis tools and methods for incorporating stakeholder concerns in complex natural resource management decisions are being increasingly applied. Here, we present an example of the integration of ecological risk assessment with decision analysis in the development of a watershed management plan for the Greater Vancouver Water District in British Columbia, Canada. Assessment endpoints were developed, ecological inventory data were collected, and watershed models were developed to characterize the existing and future condition of 3 watersheds in terms of the potential risks to water quality. Stressors to water quality include sedimentation processes (landslides, streambank erosion) and forest disturbance (wildfire, major insect or disease outbreak). Three landscape-level risk management alternatives were developed to reflect different degrees of management intervention. Each alternative was evaluated under different scenarios and analyzed by explicitly examining value-based trade-offs among water quality, environmental, financial, and social endpoints. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate how the integration of ecological risk assessment and decision analysis approaches can support decision makers in watershed management.

Watershed management processes continue to call for more science and improved decision making that take into account the full range of stakeholder perspectives. Increasingly, the core principles of ecological risk assessment (i.e., the development and use of assessment endpoints and conceptual models, conducting exposure and effects analysis) are being incorporated and adapted in innovative ways to meet the call for more science. Similarly, innovative approaches to adapting decision analysis tools and methods for incorporating stakeholder concerns in complex natural resource management decisions are being increasingly applied. Here, we present an example of the integration of ecological risk assessment with decision analysis in the development of a watershed management plan for the Greater Vancouver Water District in British Columbia, Canada. Assessment endpoints were developed, ecological inventory data were collected, and watershed models were developed to characterize the existing and future condition of 3 watersheds in terms of the potential risks to water quality. Stressors to water quality include sedimentation processes (landslides, streambank erosion) and forest disturbance (wildfire, major insect or disease outbreak). Three landscape-level risk management alternatives were developed to reflect different degrees of management intervention. Each alternative was evaluated under different scenarios and analyzed by explicitly examining value-based trade-offs among water quality, environmental, financial, and social endpoints. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate how the integration of ecological risk assessment and decision analysis approaches can support decision makers in watershed management.