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Previous studies have demonstrated that the agent of Pneumocystis pneumonia (PcP), Pneumocystis carinii, is actually a complex of eukaryotic organisms, and cophylogeny could explain the distribution of the hosts and parasites. In the present work, we tested the hypothesis of cophylogeny between the primate-derived Pneumocystis group and their hosts. Specific strains isolated from 20 primate species, including humans, were used to produce a phylogeny of the parasites. Aligned sequences corresponding to DNA sequences of three genes (DHPS, mtSSU-rRNA, and mtLSU-rRNA) were separately analyzed and then combined in a single data set. The resulting parasite phylogeny was compared with different controversial phylogenies for the hosts. This comparison demonstrated that, depending upon which topology is accepted for the hosts, at least 61% and perhaps 77% of the homologous nodes of the respective cladograms of the hosts and parasites may be interpreted as resulting from codivergence events. This finding and the high specificity of these parasites suggests that cophylogeny may be considered the dominant pattern of evolution for Pneumocystis organisms, representing a new example of parallel evolution between primates and their specific parasites. Because the phylogeny of Pneumocystis followed very closely the differentiation of their hosts at the species level, the study of the parasites could provide valuable information on the phylogeny of their hosts. We used this information to explore controversial hypotheses of the phylogeny of the Platyrrhini by comparison with the phylogeny of their specific Pneumocystis parasites. If these organisms were closely associated as lung parasites with primates through the ages, the hypothesis of the Pneumocystis spp. being new pathogenic agents could be refuted. However, these organisms are opportunistic symbionts, becoming pathogenic whenever the immunological defences of their hosts decline. This study also provides support for the hypothesis that the different Pneumocystis species are genetically independent organisms, helping to clarify their taxonomic status.

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A phylogenetic analysis of a total of 31 species: 27 fossil species from seven families (Glypheidae, Litogastridae, Mecochiridae, Pemphicidae, Erymidae, Clytiopsidae, Chimaerastacidae), and four extant species from three families (Glypheidae, Nephropidae, Stenopodidae) is proposed. Most of the genera considered are coded exclusively based upon their type species and, as much as possible, based upon the type specimens. The cladistic analysis demonstrates that the glypheidean lobsters (infraorder Glypheidea) form a monophyletic group including two superfamilies: Glypheoidea and Pemphicoidea new status. Glypheoidea includes three families: Glypheidae, Mecochiridae and Litogastridae. Litogastridae is the sister group of the clade Glypheidae + Mecochiridae. Pemphicoidea includes a single family: Pemphicidae. A new classification of Glypheidea is proposed and currently known genera are rearranged based upon the phylogenetic analysis.