Forest fire spread out in an area having combustible material in the summer season with high temperature. It burns the area and looks like a misery. Forest fire is one of the factors that severely affects the forest biodiversity. Burning actions in a forest affects not only flora and fauna but also soil properties changed due to the forest fire. In summer season on sloppy topography forest fire originates in tropical forests. While in coniferous forests, forest fire outbreaks during the resin extraction activities. More than 350 million hectares (ha) was estimated to be affected by vegetation fires globally. In India about 55% of forest area is prone to the fire. Fires can be natural or man- made, but manmade fire affects mostly. Several forest types and areas are more susceptible to forest fires because of suitable weather, topography and inflammable material. Forest fires adversely affect the soil, water, flora and fauna and disrupt the ecological functions. The new advances in fire control are remote sensing and GIS where real time information can be gathered about the fire break and immediate follow can be done. The chemicals (as borate, ammonium sulfate and ammonium biphosphate) are used for fire control and various other types of fire retardants are used to keep the fire under control. Forest fire changes the composition of vegetation, extinction of species, development of the various adaptations in unwanted plants. Nutrient cycle and soils are affected. Frequent forest fire events cause global warming. Forest fire needed to be controlled at initial stage and the large fires should not be allowed to occur, the modern techniques of monitoring, detection and control must be used for avoiding the large fires happenings.
The seeds of Sapindus mukorossi were collected from trees with the ideal phenotypical characters of good height, large crown and medium aged with abundant seed production. The fresh seeds were collected manually and the extracted seeds were cleaned and thoroughly hand mixed to improve the homogeneity during the sampling. The seeds based on their diameter were graded into three classes i.e. small (L 1 ) (<1.2 cm), medium (L 2 ) (1.2-1.4 cm) and large (L 3 ) (>1.4 cm). The graded seeds were subjected to five different pre-sowing treatments for germination viz., Control (T 1 ) (untreated seeds), Cold water treatment for 72 hours (T 2 ), Cow dung treatment for 7 days (T 3 ), Concentrated H 2 SO 4 for 20 minutes followed by rinsing under running tap water (T 4 ) and Hot water treatment (80 0 C) followed by 24 hours soaking (T 5 ). The graded and treated seeds were kept in seed germinator for four week. Watering and spray of fungicide was carried out manually when necessary. The effects of seed size and pre-sowing treatments on germination of seeds were explored periodically through counting the germinated seeds. The study revealed that seed parameters of the Sapindus mukorossi were significantly influenced by seed size categories. The weight of 100 seeds was recorded maximum (210.23 g) in large size (L 3 ) seed category which is significantly differed from L 2 (medium) and L 1 (small). However no significant difference has been observed among seed viability. The highest germination per cent (68.52%), germination capacity (74.07) and germination energy (41.48%) was recorded in concentrated H 2 SO 4 for 20 minutes followed by rinsing under running tap water (T 4 ) pre-sowing treatment while the lowest germination per cent (56.66%), germination capacity (64.07%) and germination energy minimum (30.74%) in T 1 (control). All treatments were significantly different from each other. On the other hand, among three seed category, large seed category (L 3 ) was recorded maximum per cent germination (76.22%), germination capacity (83.55%) and germination energy (47.77%) while the minimum germination per cent (46.22%) germination capacity (54.44%) and germination energy (25.33%) was found in small seed category (L 1 ). But all three seed size categories differed significantly from each other. Among the treatment combinations, germinability parameters were recorded maximum in T 4 L 3 (concentrated H 2 SO 4 for 20 minutes followed by rinsing under running tap water+ large seed category). The seed size and pre sowing treatments often controls the germination and initial seedling growth in many tree species. Pre-sowing treatment methods are employed for overcoming seed dormancy and are used not only to ensure the rapid germination but it also decreases labour, cost and time for nursery production.
The present study was conducted to evaluate the existing agroforestry systems and economic returns from the systems in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh, India during the year 2014-15. A total number of 220 farmers were selected randomly from four group's viz., marginal, small, medium and large based on landholding capacity for survey and data collection. The data was collected through pre-tested schedule for the purpose through personal interviews with head of the each household and field sampling. The study revealed that three agroforestry systems types prevalent among different categories of farmers namely: Agri-silviculture (AS), Agri-silvi-horticulture (ASH), Agri-horticulture (AH). The bio economics of the different systems were analyzed by calculating the cost of cultivation, gross returns ha-1 , net returns per hectare and benefit:cost ratio. The higher net returns of agroforestry systems among different farmers category was observed maximum in Agri-silviculture (AS), large farmer's category (` 240734.32) and benefit:cost ratio of agroforestry systems among farmers category was observed maximum in Agri-silvi-horticulture (ASH), large farmer's category (2.00). Hence the study represents the clear picture of economic analysis of existing agroforestry system which will help the local peoples to fulfil their basic needs and the researchers to gain the benefit from the agroforestry.
Tree species diversity, distribution and population structure of tropical forests of Bharnawapara wildlife sanctuary was investigated. The study analyzed the structure of a tropical dry deciduous forest in Chhatisgarh at different sites i.e. closed natural forest, open natural forest and plantation forests of teak. The study was conducted by laying 30 quadrats, each 10 m × 10 m in size at different sites. In total, 246 trees belonging to 28 species of 17 families were recorded from 0.3 ha sampling area. Density ranged between 520 to 990 trees ha -1 subsequently, basal area ranged between 21.50 to 47.30 m 2 ha -1. The dominant tree species was Cleistanthus collinus with an importance value index (IVI) of 57.70. Other important species were Terminalia tometosa (IVI 47.10), Lagerstroemia parviflora (36.92), Diospyros melanoxylon (28.42) and Madhuca indica (26.03). The Shannon-Wiener index (H′) ranged between 0.19 to 3.35 and Simpson's index (C) between 0.12 to 0.95 indicating high tree species diversity of tropical dry deciduous forests. It is evident from the study that natural forest has an edge over plantation forest in terms of species diversity, dominance and richness. Tree species diversity, distribution and population structure provide baseline information for conservation and management of tropical dry deciduous forests in India. Efforts are needed to conserve the natural forest for their diversity and existence. They can also be supplemented with plantation forests to lower the biotic pressure.
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