Sucrose is the most abundant disaccharide in the environment because of its origin in higher plant tissues, and many Eubacteria possess catalytic enzymes, such as the sucrose-6-phosphate hydrolases and sucrose phosphorylases, that enable them to metabolise this carbohydrate in a regulated manner. This review describes the range of gene architecture, uptake systems, catabolic activity and regulation of the sucrose-utilisation regulons that have been reported in the Eubacteria to date. Evidence is presented that, although there are many common features to these gene clusters and high conservation of the proteins involved, there has been a certain degree of gene shuffling. Phylogenetic analyses of these proteins supports the hypothesis that these clusters have been acquired through horizontal gene transfer via mobile elements and transposons, and this may have enabled the recipient bacteria to colonise sucrose-rich environmental niches.

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Comparison of the complete genome sequence of Bacteroides fragilis 638R, originally isolated in the USA, was made with two previously sequenced strains isolated in the UK (NCTC 9343) and Japan (YCH46). The presence of 10 loci containing genes associated with polysaccharide (PS) biosynthesis, each including a putative Wzx flippase and Wzy polymerase, was confirmed in all three strains, despite a lack of cross-reactivity between NCTC 9343 and 638R surface PS-specific antibodies by immunolabelling and microscopy. Genomic comparisons revealed an exceptional level of PS biosynthesis locus diversity. Of the 10 divergent PS-associated loci apparent in each strain, none is similar between NCTC 9343 and 638R. YCH46 shares one locus with NCTC 9343, confirmed by mAb labelling, and a second different locus with 638R, making a total of 28 divergent PS biosynthesis loci amongst the three strains. The lack of expression of the phase-variable large capsule (LC) in strain 638R, observed in NCTC 9343, is likely to be due to a point mutation that generates a stop codon within a putative initiating glycosyltransferase, necessary for the expression of the LC in NCTC 9343. Other major sequence differences were observed to arise from different numbers and variety of inserted extra-chromosomal elements, in particular prophages. Extensive horizontal gene transfer has occurred within these strains, despite the presence of a significant number of divergent DNA restriction and modification systems that act to prevent acquisition of foreign DNA. The level of amongst-strain diversity in PS biosynthesis loci is unprecedented.

Glutamine synthetases are ubiquitous, homo-oligomeric enzymes essential for nitrogen metabolism. Unlike types I and II, which are well described both structurally and functionally, the larger, type IIIs are poorly characterized despite their widespread occurrence. An understanding of the structural basis for this divergence and the implications for design of type-specific inhibitors has, therefore, been impossible. The first crystal structure of a GSIII enzyme, presented here, reveals a conservation of the GS catalytic fold but subtle differences in protein-ligand interactions suggest possible avenues for the design GSIII inhibitors. Despite these similarities, the divergence of the GSIII enzymes can be explained by differences in quaternary structure. Unexpectedly, the two hexameric rings of the GSIII dodecamer associate on the opposite surface relative to types I and II. The diversity of GS quaternary structures revealed here suggests a nonallosteric role for the evolution of the double-ringed architecture seen in all GS enzymes.

The probiotic organism Bifidobacterium lactis was isolated from a yoghurt starter culture with the aim of analyzing its use of carbohydrates for the development of prebiotics. A sucrose utilization gene cluster of B. lactis was identified by complementation of a gene library in Escherichia coli. Three genes, encoding a sucrose phosphorylase (ScrP), a GalR-LacI-type transcriptional regulator (ScrR), and a sucrose transporter (ScrT), were identified by sequence analysis. The scrP gene was expressed constitutively from its own promoter in E. coli grown in complete medium, and the strain hydrolyzed sucrose in a reaction that was dependent on the presence of phosphates. Primer extension experiments with scrP performed by using RNA isolated from B. lactis identified the transcriptional start site 102 bp upstream of the ATG start codon, immediately adjacent to a palindromic sequence resembling a regulator binding site. In B. lactis, total sucrase activity was induced by the presence of sucrose, raffinose, or oligofructose in the culture medium and was repressed by glucose. RNA analysis of the scrP, scrR, and scrT genes in B. lactis indicated that expression of these genes was influenced by transcriptional regulation and that all three genes were similarly induced by sucrose and raffinose and repressed by glucose. Analysis of the sucrase activities of deletion constructs in heterologous E. coli indicated that ScrR functions as a positive regulator.Bifidobacteria are gram-positive anaerobes that occur in large numbers in the intestines of humans and other animals (44). Of the several hundred species of bacteria that colonize the large intestine, bifidobacteria are generally considered to be health promoting and beneficial (2, 23). Because of these benefits, considerable research is being directed at promoting the growth of bifidobacteria in the large intestine. One method is to introduce more bifidobacteria into the bowel by the consumption of fermented milk products containing the bacteria. Another approach is to use prebiotics, which are defined as nondigestible food ingredients that beneficially affect the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or the activity of one or a limited number of colonic bacteria (14). A variety of fructose-containing oligosaccharides, including inulin and oligofructose, have been reported to stimulate the growth of bifidobacteria (15, 16). Other nondigestible oligosaccharides, including raffinose and stachyose, as well as the oligosaccharides containing xylose, galactose, and maltose, have also been shown to have similar effects (35). Bifidobacterium lactis has been used industrially in fermented foods, such as yoghurt, cheese, beverages, sausages, infant formulas, and cereals. It is also available in natural remedies and supplemented tablets. B. lactis has been reported to be useful for supporting and balancing a healthy intestinal flora, for reducing the incidence of diarrhea and intestinal infections, for promoting the absorption of nutrients, for supporting the immune system, fo...