Disinfectants are used to reduce the concentration of pathogenic microorganisms to a safe level and help to prevent the transmission of infectious diseases. However, bacteria have a tremendous ability to respond to chemical stress caused by biocides, where overuse and improper use of disinfectants can be reflected in a reduced susceptibility of microorganisms. This review aims to describe whether mutations and thus decreased susceptibility to disinfectants occur in bacteria during disinfectant exposure. A systematic literature review following PRISMA guidelines was conducted with the databases PubMed, Science Direct and Web of Science. For the final analysis, 28 sources that remained of interest were included. Articles describing reduced susceptibility or the resistance of bacteria against seven different disinfectants were identified. The important deviation of the minimum inhibitory concentration was observed in multiple studies for disinfectants based on triclosan and chlorhexidine. A reduced susceptibility to disinfectants and potentially related problems with antibiotic resistance in clinically important bacterial strains are increasing. Since the use of disinfectants in the community is rising, it is clear that reasonable use of available and effective disinfectants is needed. It is necessary to develop and adopt strategies to control disinfectant resistance.

Abstract Hospital wastewaters are highly complex effluents acting as a hotspot for antibiotic resistant bacteria. Especially, Gram-negative bacteria bearing multiple antibiotic resistant genes are increasingly found in hospital wastewaters. The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of extended spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL) and carbapenemase producing Enterobacteriaceae in hospital wastewaters from one Slovenian and two Austrian hospitals, as well as the occurrence of antibiotic resistant genes encoding for VIM, KPC, NDM, CTXM and OXA beta-lactamases in isolates from hospital wastewater. The results indicated high levels of ESBL producing Enterobacteriaceae in ranges up to 107 cfu/mL. Carbapenemase producing Enterobacteriaceae and OXA 48-type CPE were present in ranges up to 105 cfu/mL. Out of 89 multiplied polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplicons, only 36 were positive for different β-lactamase gene families, among those only three isolates were identified as multiresistant. The dominant ESBL family was CTXM in 19 different isolates. This was followed by 10 OXA-48 positive isolates and 10 VIM positive isolates. KPC or NDM carbapenemases were not identified with PCR screening of the isolates. Hospital wastewaters serve as a reservoir for nearly all clinically important antibiotic resistances. The importance of evaluating such potential environmental reservoirs is especially evident when outbreak cases could not be linked to an epidemiological source.

Discipline of molecular ecology and molecular techniques such as polymerase chain reaction PCR ofers a possibility to study and reveal the microbial diversity in environmental setings with complicated mixed communities, non-culturable organisms, interfering contaminants and low levels of target DNA. Hospital environment represents a new ecological niche for clinically important nosocomial pathogens and antibiotic-resistant microorganisms, which have been commonly found on various hospital surfaces. Accurate characterization of microbial communities depends on several factors, starting with sample collection and conditional enrichment step. In the step of nucleic acid isolation and puriication, the DNA, as a dominant signature molecule, is extracted followed by removing co-extracted impurities. PCR target sequences are often 16S rDNA gene, functional gene probes or species-speciic probes, depending on the objective of the study. Furthermore, properly prepared PCR amplicons can serve as a basis for characterizing microbial community. The PCR technique is a powerful tool for the analysis of microbial diversity of environmental ecosystems. In a hospital environment, advantages of detecting pathogens and antibiotic-resistant bacteria need to be pointed out.Keywords: microorganisms, hospital environment, inanimate surfaces, DNA extraction, PCR . IntroductionCharacteristics of the hospital environments are very speciic where inanimate environment can be colonized with a wide range of microorganisms [1,2]. The cultured microorganisms represent only a small fraction of natural microbial communities, hence the microbial diversity in terms of species richness and species abundance is grossly underestimated [3]. Therefore, the discipline of molecular ecology and molecular techniques such as polymerase chain reaction PCR ofers a possibility to study and reveal the real-microbial population complexity and a possibility to overcome limitations of culture-based approaches. Due to the power of the PCR to amplify small amounts of DNA, organisms occurring in small numbers in an environment are now detectable [3]. Special challenges in environmental setings are complicated mixed communities, interfering contaminants and low levels of target DNA [4]. The speciics of environmental samples are low to medium concentration of target cells, low sample homogeneity and high degree of PCR inhibition [5].Many types of pathogenic microorganisms have been found on various common hospital surfaces. Most common nosocomial bacteria present and detected on inanimate hospital surfaces, using speciic marker genes, are presented in

Antimicrobial finishing of textiles protects users from pathogenic microorganisms, which can cause medical and hygienic problem. The use of such textiles particularly increases in healthcare facilities, where reduction and transmission of pathogenic bacteria are important factors for preventing nosocomial infections. In the present study, the efficiency of fabric with silane quaternary ammonium compounds (Si-QAC) applied as active agents was evaluated. A test was performed according to ATCC 100-1999 Test Method after 0-, 24-and 48-hour incubation times. The treated textiles were effective against Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae, but were not effective for Gramnegative Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Testing was also performed in hospital environment at infectious department where working clothes made of treated fabric were compared to normal working clothes. Antimicrobial textiles were not effective in a hospital environment, where average microbial count on medical workers' uniforms without antimicrobial protection was 1.4 × 10 9 cfu/mL, and 1.3 × 10 9 cfu/mL for uniforms made of antimicrobial material. Our conclusion is that quantities of application rates for Si-QAC should be higher or should be improved with applying another antimicrobial coating to obtain complex with dual activity.

Background Vending machines represent one way of offering food, but they are overlooked in the efforts to improve people’s eating habits. The aim of our study was to analyse the variety and nutritional values of beverages offered in vending machines in social and health care institution in Slovenia. Methods The available beverages were quantitatively assessed using traffic light profiling and the model for nutrient profiling used by Food Standards Australia New Zealand. Vending machines in 188 institutions were surveyed, resulting in 3046 different beverages consisting of 162 unique product labels. Results Between 51 and 54% of beverages were categorised as unhealthy with regard to sugar content. Water accounted for only 13.7% of all beverages in vending machines. About 82% of beverages in vending machines were devoted to sugar-sweetened beverages, the majority (58.9%) presented in 500-ml bottles. The average sugar content and average calories in beverages sold in vending machines are slightly lower than in beverages sold in food stores. Conclusions We suggest that regulatory guidelines should be included in the tender conditions for vending machines in health and social care institutions, to ensure healthy food and beverage choices.