We developed a de novo protein design strategy to swiftly engineer decoys for neutralizing pathogens that exploit extracellular host proteins to infect the cell. Our pipeline allowed the design, validation, and optimization of de novo hACE2 decoys to neutralize SARS-CoV-2. The best decoy, CTC-445.2, binds with low nanomolar affinity and high specificity to the RBD of the spike protein. Cryo-EM shows that the design is accurate and can simultaneously bind to all three RBDs of a single spike protein. Because the decoy replicates the spike protein target interface in hACE2, it is intrinsically resilient to viral mutational escape. A bivalent decoy, CTC-445.2d, shows ~10-fold improvement in binding. CTC-445.2d potently neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 infection of cells in vitro and a single intranasal prophylactic dose of decoy protected Syrian hamsters from a subsequent lethal SARS-CoV-2 challenge.
Herein, the synthesis of four different trehalose glycopolymers and investigation of their ability to stabilize proteins to heat and lyophilization stress are described. The disaccharide, α,α-trehalose, was modified with a styrenyl acetal, methacrylate acetal, styrenyl ether, or methacrylate moiety resulting in four different monomers. These monomers were then separately polymerized using free radical polymerization with azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN) as an initiator to synthesize the glycopolymers. Horseradish peroxidase and glucose oxidase were incubated at 70 and 50 °C, respectively, and β-galactosidase was lyophilized multiple times in the presence of various ratios of the polymers or trehalose. The protein activities were subsequently tested and found to be significantly higher when the polymers were present during the stress compared to no additive and to equivalent amounts of trehalose. Different molecular weights (10 kDa, 20 kDa, and 40 kDa) were tested and all were equivalent in their stabilization ability. However, some subtle differences were observed regarding stabilization ability between the different polymer samples, depending on the stress. Small molecules such as benzyl ether trehalose were not better stabilizers than trehalose, and the trehalose monomer decreased protein activity, suggesting that hydrophobized trehalose was not sufficient and that the polymeric structure was required. In addition, cytotoxicity studies with NIH 3T3 mouse embryonic fibroblast cells, RAW 264.7 murine macrophages, human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs), and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were conducted with polymer concentrations up to 8 mg/mL. The results showed that all four polymers were non-cytotoxic for all tested concentrations. The results together suggest that trehalose glycopolymers are promising as additives to protect proteins from a variety of stressors.
Direct-write patterning of multiple proteins on surfaces is of tremendous interest for a myriad of applications. Precise arrangement of different proteins at increasingly smaller dimensions is a fundamental challenge to apply the materials in tissue engineering, diagnostics, proteomics and biosensors. Herein we present a new resist that protects proteins during electron beam exposure and its application in direct-write patterning of multiple proteins. Polymers with pendant trehalose units are shown to effectively cross-link to surfaces as negative resists, while at the same time providing stabilization to proteins during the vacuum and electron beam irradiation steps. In this manner, arbitrary patterns of several different classes of proteins such as enzymes, growth factors and immunoglobulins are realized. Utilizing the high precision alignment capability of electron-beam lithography, surfaces with complex patterns of multiple proteins are successfully generated at the micrometer and nanometer scale without requiring cleanroom conditions.
Simultaneous detection of multiple biomarkers, such as extracellular signaling molecules, is a critical aspect in disease profiling and diagnostics. Precise positioning of antibodies on surfaces, especially at the micro- and nano- scale, is important for the improvement of assays, biosensors, and diagnostics on the molecular level, and therefore, the pursuit of device miniaturization for parallel, fast, low-volume assays is a continuing challenge. Here, we describe a multiplexed cytokine immunoassay utilizing electron beam lithography and a trehalose glycopolymer as a resist for the direct writing of antibodies on silicon substrates allowing for micro- and nano-scale precision of protein immobilization. Specifically, anti-interleukin 6 (IL-6) and anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) antibodies were directly patterned. Retention of the specific binding properties of the patterned antibodies was shown by the capture of secreted cytokines from stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. A sandwich immunoassay was employed using gold nanoparticles and enhancement with silver for the detection and visualization of bound cytokines to the patterns by localized surface plasmon resonance detected with dark field microscopy. Multiplexing with both IL-6 and TNFα on a single chip was also successfully demonstrated with high specificity and in relevant cell culture conditions and at different times after cell stimulation. The direct fabrication of capture antibody patterns for cytokine detection described here could be useful for biosensing applications.
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