Effective conservation of rare carnivores requires reliable estimates of population density for prioritizing investments and assessing the effectiveness of conservation interventions. We used camera traps and capture-recapture analysis to provide the first reliable abundance and density estimates for the common leopard Panthera pardus and clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa in Manas National Park, India. In 57 days of camera trapping, with a total of 4,275 camera-trap days, we photo-captured 27 individually identified common leopards (11 males, 13 females and three unidentified), and 16 clouded leopards (four males, five females and seven unidentified). The abundance estimates using the M h jackknife and Pledger model M h were 47.0 and 35.6, respectively, for the common leopard, and 21.0 and 25.0, respectively, for the clouded leopard. Density estimates using maximum likelihood spatiallyexplicit capture-recapture were 3.4 ± SE 0.82 and 4.73 ± SE 1.43 per 100 km 2 for the common and clouded leopards, respectively. Spatially-explicit capture-recapture provided more realistic density estimates compared with those obtained from conventional methods. Our data indicates that camera trapping using a capture-recapture framework is an effective tool for assessing population sizes of cryptic and elusive carnivores such as the common and clouded leopards. The study has established a baseline for the longterm monitoring programme for large carnivores in Manas National Park.

Tiger Panthera tigris, is used as a flagship or umbrella species in conserving wildlife and wild areas in many parts of Asia. We used remotely triggered camera traps and capture-recapture framework within Manas National Park in India and Royal Manas National Park in Bhutan to estimate the abundance and density of tigers in the Transboundary Manas Conservation Complex (TMCC). A total of 102 camera traps pairs were used in three ranges to cover more than 400 km 2 area. We captured 87 photographs of 14 individually identified tigers (eight males and six females), during the 5,955 cameratrap night survey period. The population estimated was 15 (±SE 2.64) individuals with a 95 per cent confidence interval range of 15 to 29. Tiger density estimates using ½ MMDM (Mean Maximum Distance Moved) and using MLSECR (Maximum Likelihood Spatially Explicit Capture Recapture) analysis was 1.9 (±SE 0.36) and 0.75 (±SE 0.21) individuals/100 km 2 respectively. TMCC is an important landscape, crucial for the future of tigers, and effective management of biodiversity should extend beyond the borders of protected areas and across political boundaries.In the Indian subcontinent, conservation of the Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is at a crucial stage.

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