Cancer stem cells (CSCs) represent a subset of cells within tumours that exhibit self-renewal properties and the capacity to seed tumours. CSCs are typically refractory to conventional treatments and have been associated to metastasis and relapse. Salinomycin operates as a selective agent against CSCs through mechanisms that remain elusive. Here, we provide evidence that a synthetic derivative of salinomycin, which we named ironomycin (AM5), exhibits a more potent and selective activity against breast CSCs in vitro and in vivo, by accumulating and sequestering iron in lysosomes. In response to the ensuing cytoplasmic depletion of iron, cells triggered the degradation of ferritin in lysosomes, leading to further iron loading in this organelle. Iron-mediated production of reactive oxygen species promoted lysosomal membrane permeabilization, activating a cell death pathway consistent with ferroptosis. These findings reveal the prevalence of iron homeostasis in breast CSCs, pointing towards iron and iron-mediated processes as potential targets against these cells.

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The paradigm of cancer stem cells (CSCs) defines the existence of cells exhibiting self-renewal and tumor-seeding capacity. These cells have been associated with tumor relapse and are typically resistant to conventional chemotherapeutic agents. Over the past decade, chemical biology studies have revealed a significant number of small molecules able to alter the proliferation of these cells in various settings. The natural product salinomycin has emerged as the most promising anti-CSC agent. However, an explicit mechanism of action has not yet been characterized, in particular due to the pleiotropic responses salinomycin is known for. In this punctum, we describe our recent discovery that salinomycin and the more potent synthetic derivative we named ironomycin sequester lysosomal iron. We found that these compounds, by blocking iron translocation, induce an iron-depletion response leading to a lysosomal degradation of ferritin followed by an iron-mediated lysosomal production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and a cell death pathway that resembles ferroptosis. These unprecedented findings identified iron homeostasis and iron-mediated processes as potentially druggable in the context of CSCs.

Anthracyclines such as doxorubicin are used extensively in the treatment of cancers. Anthraquinone-related angucyclines also exhibit antiproliferative properties and have been proposed to operate via similar mechanisms, including direct genome targeting. Here, we report the chemical synthesis of marmycin A and the study of its cellular activity. The aromatic core was constructed by means of a one-pot multistep reaction comprising a regioselective Diels-Alder cycloaddition, and the complex sugar backbone was introduced through a copper-catalysed Ullmann cross-coupling, followed by a challenging Friedel-Crafts cyclization. Remarkably, fluorescence microscopy revealed that marmycin A does not target the nucleus but instead accumulates in lysosomes, thereby promoting cell death independently of genome targeting. Furthermore, a synthetic dimer of marmycin A and the lysosome-targeting agent artesunate exhibited a synergistic activity against the invasive MDA-MB-231 cancer cell line. These findings shed light on the elusive pathways through which anthraquinone derivatives act in cells, pointing towards unanticipated biological and therapeutic applications.

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A methodological study towards the total synthesis of marmycin A/B is described exploiting a commercial anthraquinone molecule as model compound. The challenging synthetic pathway uncovers a copper-catalysed Ullmann cross-coupling to attach the sugar backbone by means of C-N bond formation and, finally, an intramolecular Friedel-Crafts CC glycosylation to successfully afford the core structure of marmycin A. This methodology has been successfully applied to the genuine anthraquinone moiety leading to the natural product and simpler structural analogues.