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This study conducts a comparative analysis of social enterprise intermediaries in China and India to better understand how they mediate the influence of external institutions to help legitimize and institutionalize social enterprises in new settings. Drawing on data collected from surveys, interviews and websites in each country, this study finds that intermediaries are important legitimizing actors for social enterprises but their specific strategies can vary in the different contexts due to differences in institutional pressures. Such an understanding is key to building intermediaries' capacity to institutionalize and ease the entrance of social enterprises as new institutional actors in these settings. This paper contributes theoretically by uniquely combining three theoretical strains to more fully capture legitimizing processes in situations of institutional innovation.

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Studies on the nonprofit pay differential find that nonprofit workers in the child day care industry earn more than comparable for‐profit workers, whereas nonprofit lawyers earn less than lawyers in for‐profit firms. Are nonprofit day care center workers less altruistic than for‐profit day care workers or nonprofit lawyers? The answer is yet to come. The study aims to test the donative labor hypothesis, which is derived from altruistic motivation. To estimate the donative labor effects on the individual level, I apply cross‐classified multilevel modeling to disentangle the confounding effects on the industry level and occupation level. Data are pooled from Census 2000 and American Community Survey 2005–2016 to provide individual, industry, and occupation information. Industries are cleaned based on the Statistics of Income data from the National Center for Charitable Statistics. My analysis finds that nonprofit workers earn 4.3% less than comparable for‐profit workers net of industry and occupation effects. The study contributes to elucidating the explanatory levels of different theories. The random‐effects modeling has established an exhaustive inventory of nonprofit pay differential across industry and occupation levels.

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