The authors offer a framework for conceptualizing collective identity that aims to clarify and make distinctions among dimensions of identification that have not always been clearly articulated. Elements of collective identification included in this framework are self-categorization, evaluation, importance, attachment and sense of interdependence, social embeddedness, behavioral involvement, and content and meaning. For each element, the authors take note of different labels that have been used to identify what appear to be conceptually equivalent constructs, provide examples of studies that illustrate the concept, and suggest measurement approaches. Further, they discuss the potential links between elements and outcomes and how context moderates these relationships. The authors illustrate the utility of the multidimensional organizing framework by analyzing the different configuration of elements in 4 major theories of identification.

The extended contact hypothesis proposes that knowledge that an in-group member has a close relationship with an out-group member can lead to more positive intergroup attitudes. Proposed mechanisms are the in-group or out-group member serving as positive exemplars and the inclusion of the out-group member's group membership in the self. In Studies I and 2, respondents knowing an in-group member with an out-group friend had less negative attitudes toward that out-group, even controlling for disposition.il variables and direct out-group friendships. Study 3, with constructed intergroup-conflict situations (on the robbers cave model). found reduced negative out-group attitudes after participants learned of cross-group friendships. Study 4, a minimal group experiment, showed less negative out-group attitudes for participants observing an apparent in-group-out-group friendship. The intergroup contact hypothesis (Allport, 1954; Williams, 1947) proposes that under a given set of circumstances contact between members of different groups reduces existing negative intergroup attitudes. Some recent research (reviewed below) suggests that the effect may be most clearly associated with the specific contact of a friendship relationship. The extended contact hypothesis, which we introduce here, proposes that knowledge that an in-group member has a close relationship with an out-group member can lead to more positive intergroup attitudes. This article presents the rationale for the extended contact effect, including three mechanisms by which it may operate, and four methodologically diverse studies to demonstrate the phenomenon.

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To understand better how age-related physical qualities affect age stereotyping, this research investigated the social judgments young adult listeners make when they hear the voices of younger, middle-aged, and older adult speakers. Ninetysix listeners judged 24 speakers (22-79 years in age) reading a content-neutral passage. The listeners rated each speaker on scales reflecting character traits, vocal characteristics, and social affordances. Consistent with traditional age stereotypes, listeners judged older speakers to be less powerful and less engaged than younger speakers. However, even stronger than these negative impressions were positive impressions of older speakers' greater wisdom, which were associated with distinct age-related vocal qualities. Moreover, although listeners indicated a desire to avoid interactions with older speakers, they acknowledged them as good storytellers. The positive impressions of older speakers are interpreted within an evolutionaryecological perspective, suggesting that some age-related vocal qualities reveal longstanding, adaptive traits associated with older adulthood.