The authors offer a framework for conceptualizing collective identity that aims to clarify and make distinctions among dimensions of identification that have not always been clearly articulated. Elements of collective identification included in this framework are self-categorization, evaluation, importance, attachment and sense of interdependence, social embeddedness, behavioral involvement, and content and meaning. For each element, the authors take note of different labels that have been used to identify what appear to be conceptually equivalent constructs, provide examples of studies that illustrate the concept, and suggest measurement approaches. Further, they discuss the potential links between elements and outcomes and how context moderates these relationships. The authors illustrate the utility of the multidimensional organizing framework by analyzing the different configuration of elements in 4 major theories of identification.

This review demonstrates that the physical attractiveness stereotype established by studies of person perception is not as strong or general as suggested by the often-used summary phrase what is beautiful is good. Although subjects in these studies ascribed more favorable personality traits and more successful life outcomes to attractive than unattractive targets, the average magnitude of this beauty-is-good effect was moderate, and the strength of the effect varied considerably from study to study Consistent with our implicit personality theory framework, a substantial portion of this variation was explained by the specific content of the inferences that subjects were asked to make: The differences in subjects* perception of attractive and unattractive targets were largest for indexes of social competence; intermediate for potency, adjustment, and intellectual competence; and near zero for integrity and concern for others. The strength of the physical attractiveness stereotype also varied as a function of other attributes of the studies, including the presence of individuating information. One of the most widely cited conclusions from research on physical attractiveness is summarized by Dion, Berscheid, and Walster's (1972) claim that, in people's perceptions of others, "what is beautiful is good" (p. 285). This statement linking beauty and goodness suggests the existence of a stereotype whereby physically attractive individuals are believed to possess a wide variety of positive personal qualities. In this article, we integrate the available research on the physical attractiveness stereotype to determine the extent to which the statement that what is beautiful is good provides an accurate summary of people's inferences from cues that convey physical attractiveness. In the classic study on the physical attractiveness stereotype, Dion and her associates (1972) had subjects rate facial photographs that had been selected on the basis of judges' agreement that the pictured individuals were low, medium, or high in physical attractiveness. Subjects' ratings pertained to various person-This research was supported by National Science Foundation Grants BNS-8616149 to Richard EX Ashmore and Frances K. Del Boca, Co-Principal Investigators, and BNS-S605256 to Alice H. Eagl>; Principal Investigator. A preliminary report of this research was reported at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Society, June 1989. A table showing the effect sizes and study characteristics for each study included in the meta-analysis is available from Alice H. Eagly or Richard EX Ashmore. We thank Thomas Alley, Ellen Berscheid, Linda Jackson, and three anonymous reviewers for their comments on a draft of the article.

The present research suggests that automatic and controlled intergroup biases can be modified through diversity education. In 2 experiments, students enrolled in a prejudice and conflict seminar showed significantly reduced implicit and explicit anti-Black biases, compared with control students. The authors explored correlates of prejudice and stereotype reduction. In each experiment, seminar students' implicit and explicit change scores positively covaried with factors suggestive of affective and cognitive processes, respectively. The findings show the malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes and suggest that these may effectively be changed through affective processes.

This study introduces new measures of ethnicity‐related stress and a newly adapted measure of ethnic identity. Ethnicity‐related stressors assessed in this study were perceived discrimination, stereotype confirmation concern, and own‐group conformity pressure. Ethnic identity refers to the subjective sense of ethnic group membership and, following Luhtanen and Crocker (1992), was assessed as public regard, identity centrality, and private feelings. Data for 333 undergraduates from diverse ethnic groups indicated that the measures are psychometrically sound. Ethnic group differences for mean scores demonstrated the measures’ known‐groups validity. Cross‐sectional analyses indicated that ethnicity‐related stress and identity constructs captured by the instruments are related to measures of psychological and physical well‐being. The new measures may be useful in the investigation of psychological aspects of ethnicity and their adaptive consequences.

This study provides an exhaustive review of 44 peer-reviewed quantitative or qualitative databased peer-reviewed studies completed on adolescent peer group identification. Adolescent peer group identification is one's self-perceived or other-perceived membership in discrete teenage peer groups. The studies reviewed suggest that adolescent peer groups consist of five general categories differentiable by lifestyle characteristics: Elites, Athletes, Academics, Deviants, and Others. We found that the Deviant adolescent group category reported relatively greater participation in drug use and other problem behaviors across studies, whereas Academics and Athletes exhibited the least participation in these problem behaviors. Additional research is needed in this arena to better understand the operation of adolescent group labels.