Radial glial cells function during CNS development as neural progenitors, although their precise contribution to neurogenesis remains controversial. Recent work has argued that regional differences may exist regarding the neurogenic potential of radial glia. Here, we show that the vast majority of neurons in all brain regions derive from radial glia. Cre/loxP fate mapping and clonal analysis demonstrate that radial glia throughout the CNS serve as neuronal progenitors and that radial glia within different regions of the CNS pass through their neurogenic stage of development at distinct time points. Thus, radial glial populations within different CNS regions are not heterogeneous with regard to their potential to generate neurons versus glia.

Social behaviors, such as aggression or mating, proceed through a series of appetitive and consummatory phases1 that are associated with increasing levels of arousal2. How such escalation is encoded in the brain, and linked to behavioral action selection, remains an important unsolved problem in neuroscience. The ventrolateral subdivision of the murine ventromedial hypothalamus (VMHvl) contains neurons whose activity increases during male-male and male-female social encounters. Non-cell type-specific optogenetic activation of this region elicited attack behavior, but not mounting3. We have identified a subset of VMHvl neurons marked by the estrogen receptor 1 (Esr1), and investigated their role in male social behavior. Optogenetic manipulations indicated that Esr1+ (but not Esr1-) neurons are sufficient to initiate attack, and that their activity is continuously required during ongoing agonistic behavior. Surprisingly, weaker optogenetic activation of these neurons promoted mounting behavior, rather than attack, towards both males and females, as well as sniffing and close investigation (CI). Increasing photostimulation intensity could promote a transition from CI and mounting to attack, within a single social encounter. Importantly, time-resolved optogenetic inhibition experiments revealed requirements for Esr1+ neurons in both the appetitive (investigative) and the consummatory phases of social interactions. Combined optogenetic activation and calcium imaging experiments in vitro, as well as c-Fos analysis in vivo, indicated that increasing photostimulation intensity increases both the number of active neurons and the average level of activity per neuron. These data suggest that Esr1+ neurons in VMHvl control the progression of a social encounter from its appetitive through its consummatory phases, in a scalable manner that reflects the number or type of active neurons in the population.

Feeding can be inhibited by multiple cues, including those associated with satiety, sickness or unpalatable food. How such anorexigenic signals inhibit feeding at the neural circuit level is incompletely understood. While some inhibitory circuits have been identified, it is not yet clear whether distinct anorexigenic influences are processed in a convergent or parallel manner. The amygdala central nucleus (CEA) has been implicated in feeding control, but its role is controversial. The lateral subdivision of CEA (CEl) contains a subpopulation of GABAergic neurons, marked by protein kinase C-δ. Here we show that CEl PKC-δ+ neurons in mice are activated by diverse anorexigenic signals in vivo, required for the inhibition of feeding by such signals, and strongly suppress food intake when activated. They receive pre-synaptic inputs from anatomically distributed neurons activated by different anorexigenic agents. These data suggest that CEl PKC-δ+ neurons constitute an important node that mediates the influence of multiple anorexigenic signals.

The extended amygdala has dominated research on the neural circuitry of fear and anxiety, but the septo-hippocampal axis plays an important role as well. The lateral septum (LS) is thought to suppress fear and anxiety, through its outputs to the hypothalamus. However, this structure has not yet been dissected using modern tools. The type 2 CRF receptor (Crfr2) marks a subset of LS neurons, whose functional connectivity we have investigated using optogenetics. Crfr2+ cells include GABAergic projection neurons that connect with the anterior hypothalamus. Surprisingly, we find that these LS outputs enhance stress-induced behavioral measures of anxiety. Furthermore, transient activation of Crfr2+ neurons promotes, while inhibition suppresses, persistent anxious behaviors. LS Crfr2+ outputs also positively regulate circulating corticosteroid levels. These data identify a subset of LS projection neurons that promote, rather than suppress, stress-induced behavioral and endocrinological dimensions of persistent anxiety states, and provide a cellular point-of-entry to LS circuitry.

Radial glia function during CNS development both as neural progenitors and as a scaffolding supporting neuronal migration. To elucidate pathways involved in these functions, we mapped in vivo the promoter for Blbp, a radial glial gene. We show here that a binding site for the Notch effector CBF1 is essential for all Blbp transcription in radial glia, and that BLBP expression is significantly reduced in the forebrains of mice lacking the Notch1 and Notch3 receptors. These results identify Blbp as the first predominantly CNS-specific Notch target gene and suggest that it mediates some aspects of Notch signaling in radial glia. Received February 2, 2005; revised version accepted March 25, 2005. During the development of the mammalian brain, billions of neurons have to be generated, sent to their appropriate locations, and then interconnected in a precise manner. This task is particularly complex in the cerebral cortex, where an inside-out mode of development results in newly generated neurons having to migrate over larger distances through increasingly crowded terrain as neurogenesis proceeds (Angevine and Sidman 1961). Numerous studies have documented the critical role played by the radial glial scaffold in facilitating this migration, and estimates are that as much as 90% of neuronal migration in the cortex may take place upon radial glial cells (Sidman and Rakic 1973;Hatten 1999). In addition to their structural role, radial glial cells also function as neuronal progenitors (Malatesta et al. 2000;Miyata et al. 2001;Noctor et al. 2001;Tamamaki et al. 2001) and have been shown to be the source of most neurons throughout the CNS (Anthony et al. 2004).The dual role played by radial glia as both migratory scaffolding and neuronal progenitors has suggested that there may be intimate links between the signaling pathways that control radial glial cell development, neuronal generation, and neuronal migration. The fact that migrating neurons regulate morphological and proliferative characteristics of glia (Hatten 1985) has led to considerable focus on neuronally derived signals, and several cell surface and diffusible molecules have been implicated in neuronal-radial glial signaling, including Astrotactin (Zheng et al. 1996), Neuregulin/ErbB2 (Anton et al. 1997;Rio et al. 1997;Patten et al. 2003;Schmid et al. 2003), and Notch (Gaiano et al. 2000;Gaiano and Fishell 2002;Patten et al. 2003;Schmid et al. 2003). In contrast, the genes expressed within radial glia that mediate the radial glial response to neuronal signaling are not well characterized. One candidate is brain lipid-binding protein (Blbp, Fabp7), a gene that is dynamically regulated in radial glia by migrating neurons (Feng et al. 1994;Kurtz et al. 1994;Feng and Heintz 1995). BLBP is a member of the large family of hydrophobic ligand-binding proteins (FABPs), molecules that have been shown to modulate transcription through their interactions with nuclear receptors and to play roles in metabolism (Haunerland and Spener 2004). Immunoelectron microscopy has demo...

Double-strand breaks (DSBs) must be accurately and efficiently repaired to maintain genome integrity. Depending on the organism receiving the break, the genomic location of the DSB, and the cell-cycle phase in which it occurs, a DSB can be repaired by homologous recombination (HR), nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ), or single-strand annealing (SSA). Two novel DSB repair assays were developed to determine the contributions of these repair pathways and to finely resolve repair event structures in Drosophila melanogaster. Rad51-dependent homologous recombination is the preferred DSB repair pathway in mitotically dividing cells, and the pathway choice between HR and SSA occurs after end resection and before Rad51-dependent strand invasion. HR events are associated with long gene conversion tracts and are both bidirectional and unidirectional, consistent with repair via the synthesis-dependent strand annealing pathway. Additionally, HR between diverged sequences is suppressed in Drosophila, similar to levels reported in human cells. Junction analyses of rare NHEJ events reveal that canonical NHEJ is utilized in this system.

Background: Radial glia comprise a molecularly defined neural progenitor population but their role in neurogenesis has remained contested due to the lack of a single universally accepted genetic tool for tracing their progeny and the inability to distinguish functionally distinct developmental stages.

Folate supplementation prevents up to 70% of human neural tube defects (NTDs), although the precise cellular and metabolic sites of action remain undefined. One possibility is that folate modulates the function of metabolic enzymes expressed in cellular populations involved in neural tube closure. Here we show that the folate metabolic enzyme ALDH1L1 is cell-specifically expressed in PAX3-negative radial glia at the midline of the neural tube during early murine embryogenesis. Midline restriction is not a general property of this branch of folate metabolism, as MTHFD1 displays broad and apparently ubiquitous expression throughout the neural tube. Consistent with previous work showing antiproliferative effects in vitro, ALDH1L1 upregulation during central nervous system (CNS) development correlates with reduced proliferation and most midline ALDH1L1(+) cells are quiescent. These data provide the first evidence for localized differences in folate metabolism within the early neural tube and suggest that folate might modulate proliferation via effects on midline Aldh1l1(+) cells. To begin addressing its role in neurulation, we analyzed a microdeletion mouse strain lacking Aldh1l1 and observed neither increased failure of neural tube closure nor detectable proliferation defects. Although these results indicate that loss-of-function Aldh1l1 mutations do not impair these processes in mice, the specific midline expression of ALDH1L1 and its ability to dominantly suppress proliferation in a folate responsive manner may suggest that mutations contributing to disease are gain-of-function, rather than loss-of-function. Moreover, a role for loss-of-function mutations in human NTDs remains possible, as Mthfr null mice do not develop NTDs even though MTHFR mutations increase human NTD risk.