Betanodaviruses cause massive mortality in marine fish species with viral nervous necrosis. The structure of a T = 3 Grouper nervous necrosis virus-like particle (GNNV-LP) is determined by the ab initio method with non-crystallographic symmetry averaging at 3.6 Å resolution. Each capsid protein (CP) shows three major domains: (i) the N-terminal arm, an inter-subunit extension at the inner surface; (ii) the shell domain (S-domain), a jelly-roll structure; and (iii) the protrusion domain (P-domain) formed by three-fold trimeric protrusions. In addition, we have determined structures of the T = 1 subviral particles (SVPs) of (i) the delta-P-domain mutant (residues 35−217) at 3.1 Å resolution; and (ii) the N-ARM deletion mutant (residues 35−338) at 7 Å resolution; and (iii) the structure of the individual P-domain (residues 214−338) at 1.2 Å resolution. The P-domain reveals a novel DxD motif asymmetrically coordinating two Ca2+ ions, and seems to play a prominent role in the calcium-mediated trimerization of the GNNV CPs during the initial capsid assembly process. The flexible N-ARM (N-terminal arginine-rich motif) appears to serve as a molecular switch for T = 1 or T = 3 assembly. Finally, we find that polyethylene glycol, which is incorporated into the P-domain during the crystallization process, enhances GNNV infection. The present structural studies together with the biological assays enhance our understanding of the role of the P-domain of GNNV in the capsid assembly and viral infection by this betanodavirus.

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Viral nervous necrosis caused by nervous necrosis virus (NNV) exacts a high mortality and results inhuge economic losses in grouper aquaculture in Taiwan. The present study developed a real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) method for NNV monitoring. The assay showed a strong linear correlation (r 2 ‫؍‬ 0.99) between threshold cycle (C T ) and RNA quantities, which allowed identification of infected groupers by the C T value and could be exploited to warn of NNV infection prior to an outbreak in grouper fish farms. Real-time qPCR also confirmed the copious content of NNV in grouper fin, similar to that in primary tissues; the result was verified by using in situ reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR). This indicated that grouper fin was a suitable sample for NNV detection, in a manner that could be relatively benign to the fish. The rapid spread of NNV infection to the entire population of affected farms was evident. The developed real-time qPCR method is rapid, highly sensitive, and applicable to routine high-throughput detection of large numbers of samples and has potential as a suitable tool for diagnostic, epidemiological, and genetic studies of grouper aquaculture.

Infection of virus (such as nodavirus and iridovirus) and bacteria (such as Vibrio anguillarum) in farmed grouper has been widely reported and caused large economic losses to Taiwanese fish aquaculture industry since 1979. The multiplex assay was used to detect dual viral infection and showed that only nervous necrosis virus (NNV) can be detected till the end of experiments (100% mortality) once it appeared. In addition, iridovirus can be detected in a certain period of rearing. The results of real-time PCR and in situ PCR indicated that NNV, in fact, was not on the surface of the eggs but present in the embryo, which can continue to replicate during the embryo development. The virus may be vertically transmitted by packing into eggs during egg development (formation) or delivering into eggs by sperm during fertilization. The ozone treatment of eggs may fail to remove the virus, so a new strategy to prevent NNV is needed.

Microcapsules loaded with sodium phosphate dodecahydrate (DSP) were prepared according to the solvent evaporation method. The microencapsulated phase‐change materials (MEPCMs) possessed methyl methacrylate crosslinked with ethyl acrylate generated poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) as the coating polymer. The influences of the polymerization time, polymerization temperature, and organic solvent types on the performances of the MEPCMs were studied in this report. The results indicate that the polymerization time and temperature had barely any effect on the size but a significant effect on the surface morphology of the microphase‐change materials. The solubility of the shell material varied in different organic solvents, and this to different phase‐transition enthalpies. In addition, DSP could be encapsulated well by PMMA, and the as‐prepared MEPCMs were equipped with a good morphology and a small particle size. When toluene and acetone were used as organic solvents, the MEPCMs had an interesting energy storage capacity of 142.9 J/g at 51.51°C, and this made them suitable for different applications. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 130: 1516–1523, 2013

Activation of IκB kinase β (IKK-β) and nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling contributes to cancer pathogenesis and inflammatory disease; therefore, the IKK-β−NF-κB signaling pathway is a potential therapeutic target. Current drug design strategies focus on blocking NF-κB signaling by binding to specific cysteine residues on IKK-β. However, mutations in IKK-β have been found in patients who may eventually develop drug resistance. For these patients, a new generation of IKK-β inhibitors are required to provide novel treatment options. We demonstrate in vitro that cysteine-46 (Cys-46) is an essential residue for IKK-β kinase activity. We then validate the role of Cys-46 in the pathogenesis of inflammation using delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) and an IKK-βC46A transgenic mouse model. We show that a novel IKK-β inhibitor, dihydromyricetin (DMY), has anti-inflammatory effects on WT DTH mice but not IKK-βC46A transgenic mice. These findings reveal the role of Cys-46 in the promotion of inflammatory responses, and suggest that Cys-46 is a novel drug-binding site for the inhibition of IKK-β.