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Utilizing data from the National Center for Education Statistics Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), a multilevel model (Hierarchical Linear Model) was developed to examine the association of teacher/classroom and state level indicators on reported elementary social studies instructional time. Findings indicated that state testing policy was a significant predictor of elementary teachers’ reported time spent on social studies instruction. Teachers’ perceptions of workplace autonomy and grade level were also associated with increased time on social studies. Conversely, teacher credentials, classroom socioeconomic contexts, and test design were not substantially associated with social studies instructional time. This study suggests that state policy mandates, grade-specific curricular organization, and teacher disposition have a substantial impact on the prioritization of social studies in US elementary schools.

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The purpose of this study is to determine the degree to which Opportunity to Learn (OTL), is associated with students’ achievement in US History. Opportunity to Learn stems from the basic premise that there is an important relationship between the quality and frequency of classroom instruction and students’ levels of academic success. The authors examine National Assessment of Educational Progress in U.S. History (NAEP-USH) assessment data in order to better understand the relationship between classroom- and student-level variables associated with historical knowledge as measured in the 12 th grade. Findings document that instructional exposure (OTL) is a factor associated with learning outcomes; however, the OTL in history is not the same for all student populations. An opportunity gap is evident in these results and suggests that Black students are underserved in U.S. History. However, when controlling for poverty and other socio-economic variables, students’ predictive achievement on NAEP is positively associated with instructional exposure; yet, differences were observed for some but not all strategies measured in the full model. In the aggregate and disaggregate models, instructional exposure and motivational factors associated with OTL account for a large and significant percentage of the proportional variance (r 2 ) in NAEP-USH achievement. We contend that instructional exposure is significantly predictor of historical knowledge. Findings from this study indicate: 1) student and school characteristics are significant factors associated with achievement, 2) pedagogical decisions are important and can greatly impact student learning in US History, and 3) culturally congruent instructional decision-making is needed to ensure positive learning experiences for Black students.

Adding instructional time and holding teachers accountable for teaching social studies are touted as practical, logical steps toward reforming the age-old tradition of marginalization. This qualitative case study of an urban elementary school, examines how nine teachers and one administrator enacted district reforms that added 45 min to the instructional day and implemented a series of formative and summative assessments. Through classroom observations, interviews, time journals, and official school documents, this article describes underlying perceptions and priorities that were barriers to any positive impact time or testing might have afforded social studies. Two recommendations emerge from results: 1) time structures need to provide space for the teaching of and planning for social studies; and 2) testing can have positive outcomes, but these are limited when assessments structures are hierarchical, misaligned, and poorly communicated.

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