Several reclamation‐reforestation techniques were studied on a reclaimed surface mine in southern West Virginia to develop practical guidelines for the establishment of eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.) forests interplanted with black locust (Robinia psuedoacacia L.). The study was designed to investigate (i) two herbaceous ground cover mixes (a conventional erosion control cover and a tree‐compatible reforestation cover); (ii) the effectiveness of establishing white pine and black locust by direct seeding versus hand‐planting; and (iii) the effect of fertilizing white pine with a fertilizer tablet. The study was established on a 40% slope with a minesoil derived primarily from an acidic (pH 4.8), oxidized sandstone. With an experimental variance from the West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection, final surface grading was minimized to avoid compaction. The reforestation ground cover was sparser than the conventional cover during the first year and denser after 5 yr, but the difference was not statistically significant and did not affect tree establishment. Although some white pines were established by direct seeding (2 kg/ha), their distribution was irregular. Black locusts were readily established by direct seeding (0.5 kg/ha), but the number of trees established was excessive and interfered with the growth of planted pine. Overall, growth of planted pine was very good, and fertilizer tablets did not result in significantly larger pines after 5 yr. Based on results from this study, the most practical way to establish a productive white pine‐black locust plantation is to plant pine seedlings and interplant or spot‐seed locusts between pines.
An Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.) study was established on a reclaimed surface mine in the Appalachian coal fields of West Virginia in 1985. One of the reasons for establishing this study was to demonstrate the growth potential of white pine when mined land is reclaimed in accordance with guidelines developed to maximize long-term forest productivity. Overburden placed at the surface of the study site was •an acidic, oxidized, brown sandstone (pH 4.8). Final grading was minimized to avoid compaction and some gullies and boulders were left on the surface of a 40% slope. A tree-compatible ground cover consisting of short-statured plants adapted to acidic soils was used and compared with a traditional "hayland pasture" ground cover. White pine seedlings were hand planted on a 12 x 12 ft spacing (302 trees/acre) to provide optimal crop tree spacing for sawtimber production and black locust was direct seeded at a rate of 0.5 lb acre to establish the additional number of trees required for bond release. After five years, all requirements for bond release were achieved; ground cover percentage was nearly 100%, white pine survival was 73%, and an adequate total number of trees existed to meet tree stocking criteria. Most importantly, excellent growing conditions were created for long-term tree growth. After five years, the average white pine height was 80 inches and some trees were more than ten feet tall. This study shows that productive forests can be established on reclaimed mined land if coal companies exercise controlled overburden selection and placement techniques, minimize grading, and use a tree-compatible ground cover.
In 1986 a study was established in Wyoming County, WV to compare several methods of establishing Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) and black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) on reclaimed surface mined lands in order to determine whether direct seeding was a practical alternative to handplanting seedlings. Three tree establishment treatments and two ground cover treatments were factorially arranged and replicated three times with 0.1 acre plots. Results after the fourth growing season indicate that the most cost-effective way to establish a commercial white pine plantation is to plant bare rootstock 2-0 seedlings and direct seed the black locust at a rate of less than 0.5 pounds per acre. Although some white pines were established by direct seeding. the spacing was erratic and the growth of direct seeded trees lagged behind the hand planted trees by several years.
In early 1992, Kennecott announced plans to modernize and expand the smelter and refinery located near Salt Lake City, Utah. The project increased the smelter capacity from 150,000 tonnes per year to 280,000 tonnes per year and also increased the refinery capacity from 200,000 tonnes per year to meet smelter output. Total cost of the modernization was $882 million. Part I of this paper outlines the scope of the refinery modernization program and describes the implementation of the new technology used there. The technology is based on polymer concrete cells, thoroughly prepared anodes, stainless steel plating blanks, and highly automated materials handling. In Part II, the hydrometallurgical process chemistry employed at the new Kennecott slimes treatment facility is described. The processing philosophy incorporates three major objectives: very-high firstpass recovery of the valuable metals from the slimes with minimal in-process inventory; minimization of the return of impurity metals (e.g., Pb, Sb, As, and Bi) to the smelter circuit; and complete elimination of pyrometallurgical processing with its potential for environmental abuse and precious metals recycle. In both parts, the unit start-ups and initial operating results are presented.
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