This paper presents new methods of estimating the aerodynamic roughness (z 0 ) of glacier ice directly from three-dimensional point clouds and digital elevation models (DEMs), examines temporal variability of z 0 , and presents the first fully distributed map of z 0 estimates across the ablation zone of an Arctic glacier. The aerodynamic roughness of glacier ice surfaces is an important component of energy balance models and meltwater runoff estimates through its influence on turbulent fluxes of latent and sensible heat. In a warming climate these fluxes are predicted to become more significant in contributing to overall melt volumes. Ice z 0 is commonly estimated from measurements of ice surface microtopography, typically from topographic profiles taken perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction. Recent advances in surveying permit rapid acquisition of high-resolution topographic data allowing revision of assumptions underlying conventional z 0 measurement. Using Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry with Multi-View Stereo (MVS) to survey ice surfaces with millimeter-scale accuracy, z 0 variation over 3 orders of magnitude was observed. Different surface types demonstrated different temporal trajectories in z 0 through 3 days of intense melt. A glacier-scale 2 m resolution DEM was obtained through terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), and subgrid roughness was significantly related to plot-scale z 0 . Thus, we show for the first time that glacier-scale TLS or SfM-MVS surveys can characterize z 0 variability over a glacier surface potentially leading to distributed representations of z 0 in surface energy balance models.

Real estate depreciation continues to be a critical issue for investors and the appraisal profession in the UK in the 1990s. Depreciation-sensitive cash ¯ow models have been developed, but there is a real need to develop further empirical methodologies to determine rental depreciation rates for input into these models. Although building quality has been found to be an important explanatory variable in depreciation it is very dif® cult to incorporate it into such models or to analyse it retrospectively. It is essential to examine previous depreciation research from real estate and economics in the USA and UK to understand the issues in constructing a valid and pragmatic way of calculating rental depreciation. Distinguishing between `depreciation' and `obsolescence' is important, and the pattern of depreciation in any study can be in¯uenced by such factors as the type (longitudinal or crosssectional) and timing of the study, and the market state. Longitudinal studies can analyse change more directly than cross-sectional studies. Any methodology for calculating rental depreciation rate should be formulated in the context of such issues as `censored sample bias' , `lemons' and ® ltering' , which have been highlighted in key US literature from the ® eld of economic depreciation. Property depreciation studies in the UK have tended to overlook this literature, however. Although data limitations and constraints reduce the ability of empirical property depreciation work in the UK to consider these issues fully, `averaging' techniques and ordinary least squares (OLS) regression can both provide a consistent way of calculating rental depreciation rates within a `cohort' framework.

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This chapter introduces the content of the book and covers the aim and objectives of the book, setting it in the context of previous city visions and more generic visions. The theoretical conceptual framework of the book (using the concept of city foresight) is introduced. The book draws on case studies throughout and looks at how narratives of the city have changed over time, placing the book in the context of other work. the chapter focuses on the growing importance of cities and planning for their long-term futures. The key themes employed are analysed and the format of the book is described in more detail.

This study introduced the Conditional Outdoor Leadership Theory (COLT) and examined the contributory relationships among the COLT variables: concern for task, concern for relationships, concern for conditional favourability, and outdoor leadership style. Stepwise multiple regression was employed in an effort to predict style on the basis of how concerned expert outdoor leaders were for the task, relationships, and conditional favourability of 12 scenarios. Predictions were made for expert responses which fit the model and for those which did not fit. Outcomes for both predictory equations were similar, suggesting that perceived concerns do indeed strongly contribute to the expression of outdoor leadership style, regardless of the manner in which a scenario might be interpreted.

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Computer software, and indeed hardware, has not as yet captured the imagination of many practising valuers. There are a number of reasons for this. But micro‐computer software is available for property valuation, appraisal and analysis, and this software takes a number of forms. Care should be taken in choice, especially if the firm in question uses ‘traditional’ methods of valuation. It is clear that for those not already computerised the overall strategy of a firm, as regards its function and scope of practice, should be carefully considered. For those already computerised it is hoped that the article will provide valuable advice on software availability for valuation, appraisal and portfolio analysis, with particular reference to development appraisals.

In an attempt to enhance democratic governance, sustainable development goals (SDG), and Local Agenda 21 (LA21), the notion of public participation exercise (PPE) presents a range of possibilities. The PPE is observed as a method of solving the constraints faced by public parks in Malaysia, which in general suffer from two main challenges, namely (i) the underutilisation issue of public parks and (ii) the weakness of the present top-down development policy. Consequently, the objective of this study is to develop indicators for PPE in designing public parks in Malaysia. The method implemented in this study is an assessment of the construct, variable, and indicator adapted from Lazarsfeld’s scheme by conducting a document review of the Public Consultation Index (PCI), six sustainability assessment tools, namely LEED-ND, BREEAM, IDP, SITES V2, Green Mark-NRB, and GTI, and literature references. The variables and indicators were tabulated into the respective operational definition of the construct table and variables and measurement table. The findings include the identification of two main constructs, including public participation and public parks. Multiple variables were derived from each construct, including attributes of PPE in designing public parks in Malaysia, development stage, method of approach, type of public, and public parks design criteria. Subsequently, this study developed the fundamental basis for the PPE framework in designing public parks in Malaysia, which benefits the local development approach for public parks towards an integrated design framework.