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Previous research has shown that during recognition of frontal views of faces, the preferred landing positions of eye fixations are either on the nose or the eye region. Can these findings generalize to other facial views and a simpler perceptual task? An eye-tracking experiment investigated categorization of the sex of faces seen in four views. The results revealed a strategy, preferred in all views, which consisted of focusing gaze within an 'infraorbital region' of the face. This region was fixated more in the first than in subsequent fixations. Males anchored gaze lower and more centrally than females.

J. M. G. Williams (1996) predicted that exposure to potentially traumatizing events at an early age would give rise to overgeneral recall from autobiographical memory, i.e., recall of general rather than specific events, and that in adolescence this tendency would be uncorrelated with psychopathological symptoms, e.g., depression. This was supported by two studies where war-exposed Bosnian adolescents produced significantly fewer specific autobiographical memories than a Norwegian control group, as did bombing-exposed Serbian adolescents compared to nontrauma-exposed Serbians. No significant correlations were found between autobiographical memory specificity and measures of depression, anxiety, dissociation or impact of trauma, which is consistent with Williams' idea that an overgeneral memory retrieval strategy is at first protective, and a risk factor for depression only upon reaching adulthood.

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Three experiments are reported in which tip-of-the-tongue states (TOTSs) were induced in subjects by reading them pieces of item-specific information. In Experiments 1 and 2, subjects attempted to name famous people. These experiments showed that, in a TOTS, seeing a picture of the face of the target person did not facilitate naming, whereas the initials of the person's name did. In Experiment 3, a similar result was obtained with a landmark-naming task. The results of the experiments are discussed with reference to current models of memory structure and name retrieval.The tip-of-the-tongue state (TOTS) is an everyday phenomenon. When one attempts to recall a particular word or name, one experiences some degree of partial knowledge, along with a feeling that one could recognize the "target." William James (1893) was prompted to describe this state as "a sort of wraith of a name."The first quantitative study of the TOTS was conducted by Brown and McNeill (1966). They provided evidence as to the nature of the partial knowledge that is available in TOTSs. Successful guessing of the number of syllables in the target word was achieved in a high proportion of cases, and, even more impressively, because of the lower chance levels, a word's initial letter was offered correctly on 57% of the occasions.Yarmey (1973) first drew attention to the occurrence of TOTSs in other naming tasks-specifically, in person naming. He presented faces of famous people to subjects, their task being to name the people. The information that the subjects were able to report when they were in TOTSs was categorized: The most reported information involved the person's profession, and where the person had last been encountered. But Yarmey also noted that phonemic information, such as the number of syllables, initial letters, and so forth, was often present and highly accurate. He concluded that although the target in a name search is a verbal representation, other more perceptual retrieval systems are also involved in retrieving the to-beremembered name.More recently, TOTSs have been investigated in everyday situations. Reason and Lucas (1984), who asked subjects to keep diaries of naturally occurring TOTSs, reported that both common and proper names provoked This study was supported by ESRC Studentship C00428625014 to Tim Brennen and ESRC Project Grant XC1525000l to Vicki Bruce. We are grateful to Andy Young, Dibs Hellawell, and the referees for helpful comments on earlier drafts. Please send reprint requests to Tim Brennen, Department of Psychology, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG? 2RD, U.K.TOTSs, but that the latter predominated. Cohen and Faulkner (1986) reported a diary study of "name blocks" for proper names specifically, in which subjects were asked to give extensive details each time a block was experienced, They found that the majority of name blocks occurred for names of friends and acquaintances.Recent work by Hanley and Cowell (1988) used a TOTS-inducing procedure to investigate V. Bruce and Young's (1986) fun...

In this paper we report five experiments that investigate the influence of prime faces upon the speed with which familiar faces are recognized and named. Previously, priming had been reported when the prime and target faces were closely associated, e.g., Prince Charles and Princess Diana (Bruce & Valentine, 1986). In Experiment 1 we show that there is a reliable effect of relatedness on a double-familiarity decision, even when the faces are only categorically related, e.g., Kirk Douglas and Clint Eastwood. Then it was shown that such an effect emerges only on a double decision task (Experiments 2 and 3). Experiment 4 showed that on a primed naming task, faces preceded by a categorically related prime were responded to more quickly than those preceded by an unrelated prime, and the effect was due to inhibition. Experiment 5 replicated this effect and also showed that when associatively related primes were used, a facilitatory, and not an inhibitory, effect is found. It is argued that the facilitation of associative priming arises at an earlier locus than the inhibition of categorial priming.

Recalling the name of a person is a simple, but often a problematic, everyday task. There are various explanations of this phenomenon, but here it is argued that the explanations offered so far, by failing to consider learning of names, have overlooked a simple account of name recall difficulty. The starting observation for this viewpoint is that names of people are often non-words, in that they have never been encountered before. This is not true of, say, names of professions. Not only does the relatively high rate of new exemplars mean that people's names are likely to be underlearned, but furthermore, even for equal degrees of learning, a person's name is at a disadvantage because of the high plausibility of most phonologies: "dreaner" is much more readily accepted as the name of a person than as the name of their profession. So specifying the phonology of people's names is inherently a more demanding task, compared to the phonology of other names. The implications of this view are explored with regard to explanations of empirically established name recall phenomena in normal subjects, the patterns of performance of anomic patients and the difficulty of name recall in different word domains. It is shown that these arguments, derived from a real world fact, account in a simple way for existing data and make predictions in different areas of research.

The present study investigated prospective cognition with the Hope scale (Snyder et al., 1991) and the Unrealistic Optimism Scale (Weinstein, 1980) in clinically depressed (CD; n = 61), previously depressed (PD; n = 42), and never depressed controls (ND; n = 46). In line with previous research, significant negative correlations between hope and symptoms of depression were found. Previously depressed reported lower levels of hope than NDs, but were more hopeful than CDs. In addition, relationships between depressive symptoms, dysfunctional attitudes, and expectations for the future were examined. As hypothesized, the CDs estimated their probability of experiencing positive events in the future as lower and their probability of experiencing negative events as higher than the two other groups. The PDs differed not from the NDs in their probability estimates. Implications of the findings are discussed.