This is the accepted version of the paper.This version of the publication may differ from the final published version. Reinelt is now at the German Institute for International Educational Research, and Gabriele Permanent repository link:Oettingen, Psychology Department, New York University and University of Hamburg, Germany.The research reported in this article was supported by the German Science Foundation grant OE 237/13-1, awarded to Gabriele Oettingen. We thank ChessBase© for providing chess computer games.Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to Andreas Kappes, New York University, 6 Washington Place, 7th floor, New York, NY 10003. Email:kappes.andreas@gmail.com. Mental Contrasting 2 AbstractMental contrasting of a desired future with the present reality strengthens goal pursuit when expectations of success are high, and weakens goal pursuit when expectations of success are low.We hypothesized that mental contrasting effects on selective goal pursuit are mediated by a change in the meaning of the present reality as an obstacle towards reaching the desired future.Using explicit evaluation of reality (Study 1), implicit categorization of reality as obstacle (Study 2), and detection of obstacle (Study 3) as indicators, we found that mental contrasting (versus relevant control groups) fostered the meaning of reality as obstacle when expectations of success were high, but weakened it when expectations of success were low. Importantly, the meaning of reality as obstacle mediated mental contrasting effects on goal pursuit (Study 1, 2). The findings suggest that mental contrasting produces selective goal pursuit by changing the meaning of a person's reality.Keywords: mental contrasting, expectations, obstacles, goal pursuit, self-regulation, meaningMental Contrasting 3 Mental Contrasting Changes the Meaning of RealityImagine two students wishing to finalize an important assignment over the weekend; the first one expecting to be able to do it, the second one not. While thinking about the assignment, both receive an email reminder about a Saturday night party. For the first student, seeing the party in the context of the assignment makes her realize that this party is standing in the way of completing her assignment. She had been looking forward to attending, but the party is not so alluring anymore; she cannot help but think of it as an obstacle to finishing her assignment. For the second student, seeing the party in the context of the assignment has the opposite effect. She realizes that she will probably not finish the assignment on the weekend anyway; she might as well enjoy the party! For her, the party is not an obstacle, but an opportunity for having fun. The different meanings that the two students give to the party shape their pursuit of finishing the assignment: the first is determined to complete it and refrains from attending the party, the second refrains from trying to finish and enjoys the party whole-heartedly.In these and similar situations, goal pursuit is influenced by the meaning t...

Background: Children younger than 7 years can develop mental disorders that might manifest differently than in older children or adolescents. However, little is known about the prevalence of mental disorders at this early age. Methods: We systematically searched the literature in the databases Web of Science, PsycINFO, PSYNDEX, MEDLINE, and Embase to identify epidemiological studies of community samples published between 2006 and 2020. A series of meta-analyses was conducted to estimate the pooled worldwide prevalence of mental disorders in general, specific mental disorders, and comorbidity in young children. Results: A total of ten epidemiological studies reporting data on N = 18,282 children (12-83 months old) from eight countries met the inclusion criteria. The pooled prevalence of mental disorders in general was 20.1%, 95% CI [15.7, 25.4]. Most common disorders were oppositional defiant disorder (4.9%, 95% CI [2.5, 9.5]) and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (4.3%, 95% CI [2.5, 7.2]). The prevalence of any anxiety disorders was 8.5%, 95% CI [5.2, 13.5], and of any depressive disorders was 1.1%, 95% CI [0.8, 1.6]. Comorbidity was estimated at 6.4%, 95% CI [1.3, 54.0]. Conclusions: The literature search reveals that the epidemiology of mental disorders in children younger than 7 years is still a neglected area of research. The findings also indicate that there are a significant number of young children suffering from mental disorders who need appropriate age-adapted treatment.

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During the last years, the number of refugees around the world increased to about 22.5 million. The mental health of refugees, especially of unaccompanied minors (70% between the ages of 16 and 18 years) who have been exposed to traumatic events (e.g., war), is generally impaired with symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety. Several studies revealed (1) a huge variation among the prevalence rates of these mental problems, and (2) that post-migration stressors (e.g., language barriers, cultural differences) might be at least as detrimental to mental health as the traumatic events in pre- and peri-flight. As psychotherapy is a limited resource that should be reserved for severe cases and as language trainings are often publicly offered for refugees, we recommend focusing on intercultural competence, emotion regulation, and goal setting and goal striving in primary support programs: Intercultural competence fosters adaptation by giving knowledge about cultural differences in values and norms. Emotion regulation regarding empathy, positive reappraisal, and cultural differences in emotion expression fosters both adaptation and mental health. Finally, supporting unaccompanied refugee minors in their goal setting and goal striving is necessary, as they carry many unrealistic wishes and unattainable goals, which can be threatening to their mental health. Building on these three psychological processes, we provide recommendations for primary support programs for unaccompanied refugee minors that are aged 16 to 18 years.

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