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The future of acute phase proteins (APPs) in science is discussed in this paper. Many functions and associated pathological processes of APPs are unknown. Extrahepatic formation in local tissues needs attention. Local serum amyloid A (SAA) formation may be involved in deposition of AA-amyloid induced by conformational change of SAA resulting in amyloid formation, having tremendous food safety implications. Amyloidogenesis is enhanced in mouse fed beta pleated sheet-rich proteins. The local amyloid in joints of chicken and mammary corpora amylacea is discussed. Differences in glycosylation of glycoproteins among the APPs, as has been shown for alpha1-acid glycoprotein, have to be considered. More knowledge on the reactivity patterns may lead to implication of APPs in the diagnostics and staging of a disease. Calculation of an index from values of several acute phase variables increases the power of APPs in monitoring unhealthy individuals in animal populations. Vaccinations, just as infections in eliciting acute phase response seem to limit the profitability of vaccines because acute phase reactions are contra-productive in view of muscle anabolism. Interest is focused on amino acid patterns and vitamins in view of dietary nutrition effect on sick and convalescing animals. When inexpensive methodology such as liquid phase methods (nephelometry, turbidimetry) or protein array technology for rapid APP measurement is available, APPs have a future in routine diagnostics. Specific groups of patients may be screened or populations monitored by using APP.

In this study, we prepared platinum (Pt)-containing graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) catalysts using Pt photodeposition onto g-C3N4 modified by chemical oxidation, and the chemically oxidized Pt/g-C3N4 catalysts were applied to photocatalytic hydrogen evolution tests. The hydrogen production rates of the chemically oxidized Pt/g-C3N4 photocatalysts (2471.7 and 3640.8 μmol g–1 h–1) were found to be at least 5 times higher than those of bulk Pt/g-C3N4 (429.3 and 728.8 μmol g–1 h–1). Compared with bulk g-C3N4, the chemically oxidized g-C3N4 was composed of more positively charged locales induced nearby the oxygen-containing edges, which was proven by DFT calculations. As a result, the chemically oxidized Pt/g-C3N4 catalysts maintained the high ratio of Pt2+/Pt0 among the Pt nanoparticles during the Pt photodeposition. The higher proportion of Pt2+ sites on the chemically oxidized g-C3N4 enhanced the hydrogen evolution rate by their favorable water adsorption and hydrogen intermediates (Hads) desorption, thus suppressing the reversible reaction route of H2 to 2H+. Additionally, the chemically oxidized g-C3N4 with oxygen-containing functional groups improved the separation efficiency of photoexcited charges over Pt/g-C3N4.

Photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting is considered a promising technology to produce renewable hydrogen, a clean fuel or energy carrier to replace conventional carbon‐based fossil‐fuel sources. Nevertheless, the overall solar‐to‐hydrogen efficiency and the cost‐effectiveness of this technology are still unsatisfactory for practical implementation. This can be primarily attributed to the sluggish kinetics of the anodic oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and the relatively low economic value of cogenerated O2 production. Over the past decades, there are extensive efforts to explore more kinetically favorable photooxidation reactions, which coupled with hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) can simultaneously improve H2 production yield and produce higher valuable alternatives to conventional O2. This review aims to present recent progress on the alternative anodic choices to OER. Here, the fundamental of PEC water splitting and the critical components required for this system are first shortly summarized. Then the benefits and issues of alternative photooxidation reactions including photooxidation of water to hydrogen peroxide, chlorine, alcohol, 5‐hydroxymethylfurfural, or urea oxidation when combined with the concurrent HER, are reviewed and analyzed. This review is concluded by presenting a critical evaluation of the challenges and opportunities of these alternative HER‐coupled photooxidation reactions for solar energy production and environmental treatment.

Although CD1d and NKT cells have been proposed to have highly conserved functions in mammals, data on functions of CD1d and NKT cells in species other than humans and rodents are lacking. Upon stimulation with the CD1d-presented synthetic antigen α-galactosylceramide, human and rodent type I invariant NKT cells release large amounts of cytokines. The two bovine CD1D (boCD1D) genes have structural features that suggest that they cannot be translated into functional proteins expressed on the cell surface. Here we provide evidence that despite an intron-exon structure and signal peptide that are different from all other known CD1 genes, boCD1D can be translated into a protein that is expressed on the cell surface. However, in vivo treatment of cattle (Bos taurus) with 0.1, 1, or 10 µg kg⁻¹ of the most commonly used α-galactosylceramide, which has a C26 fatty acid, did not lead to an increase in body temperature and serum cytokine levels of the animals. This lack of reactivity is not due to a complete inability of boCD1d to present glycosphingolipids because α-galactosylceramide variants with shorter fatty acids could be presented by boCD1d to human NKT cells in vitro. This suggests that the natural ligands of boCD1d are smaller lipids.

Although CD1 proteins are known to present mycobacterial lipid antigens to T cells, there is little understanding of the in vivo behavior of T cells restricted by CD1a, CD1b and CD1c, and the relative immunogenicity and immunodominance of individual lipids within the total array of lipids that comprise a bacterium. Because bovines express multiple CD1 proteins and are natural hosts of Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis (MAP), we used them as a new animal model of CD1 function. Here, we report the surprisingly divergent responses against lipids produced by these two pathogens during infection. Despite considerable overlap in lipid content, only three out of 69 animals cross-react with M. bovis and MAP total lipid preparations. The unidentified immunodominant compound of M. bovis is a hydrophilic compound, whereas the immunodominant lipid of MAP is presented by CD1b and was identified as glucose monomycolate (GMM). The preferential recognition of GMM antigen by MAP-infected cattle may be explained by the higher expression of GMM by MAP than by M. bovis. The bacterial species-specific nature of the CD1-restricted, adaptive T-cell response affects the approach to development of lipid based immunodiagnostic tests.

Streptococcus uberis is a highly prevalent causative agent of bovine mastitis, which leads to large economic losses in the dairy industry. The aim of this study was to examine the host response during acute inflammation after experimental challenge with capsulated Strep. uberis. Gene expression in response to Strep. uberis was compared between infected and control quarters in 3 animals. All quarters (n=16) were sampled at 16 different locations. Microarray data showed that 239 genes were differentially expressed between infected and control quarters. No differences in gene expression were observed between the different locations. Microarray data were confirmed for several genes using quantitative PCR analysis. Genes differentially expressed due to early Strep. uberis mastitis represented several stages of the process of infection: (1) pathogen recognition; (2) chemoattraction of neutrophils; (3) tissue repair mechanisms; and (4) bactericidal activity. Three different pathogen recognition genes were induced: ficolins, lipopolysaccharide binding protein, and toll-like receptor 2. Calgranulins were found to be the most strongly upregulated genes during early inflammation. By histology and immunohistochemistry, we demonstrated that changes in gene expression in response to Strep. uberis were induced both in infiltrating somatic milk cells and in mammary epithelial cells, demonstrating that the latter cell type plays a role in milk production as well as immune responsiveness. Given the rapid development of inflammation or mastitis after infection, early diagnosis of (Strep. uberis) mastitis is required for prevention of disease and spread of the pathogen. Insight into host responses could help to design immunomodulatory therapies to dampen inflammation after (early) diagnosis of Strep. uberis mastitis. Future research should focus on development of these early diagnostics and immunomodulatory components for mastitis treatment.

In this work, we present the in situ exfoliation of graphitic carbon nitride (g-C 3 N 4 ), engineering holey defects on 2D g-C 3 N 4 layers, and formation of self-assembled graphene via solvothermal treatment of g-C 3 N 4 -bulk in various organic solvents. Methyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, tetrahydrofuran, and dimethylformamide were chosen for exfoliating and modifying g-C 3 N 4 sheets based on their compatibility with g-C 3 N 4 in Hansen parameters. Uniform holey defects on 2D g-C 3 N 4 nanosheets were successfully engineered using tetrahydrofuran solvent in a facile solvothermal process. The introduction of N vacancies in heptazine units and the formation of the holey structure of tetrahydrofuran-modified g-C 3 N 4 sample (C 3 N 4 -THF) led to high photocatalytic performance due to enhanced mass transfer, shortening of the charge diffusion lengths, and increased charge separation during the photocatalysis process. Furthermore, full exfoliation of the engineered nanostructure of holey defect C 3 N 4 -THF into a monolayer in reaction media led to maximizing accessible reducing and oxidizing active sites. As a result, the C 3 N 4 -THF sample achieved photocatalytic activity with a H 2 evolution rate at stationary point as high as 31256.9 μmol h −1 g −1 under 1 Sun illumination of a solar simulator.