We examine the consistency of risk preference measures based on eight hypothetical elicitation methods and a lottery game applied to smallholder farmers in a marginal upland environment in Vietnam. Using these measures, we identify influencing factors of risk aversion via regression analysis, whereby unlike previous studies, we include several proxies of social capital such as social networks and norms. Data were collected from household heads and spouses separately in a random sample of 300 households. Although correlations between most of the various risk preference measures are all statistically highly significant, most are weak. On average, respondents have a high degree of risk aversion and specific characteristics—gender, age, idiosyncratic shocks, education, social norms, network‐reliance with extended family, and connections to local authorities—are significant determinants of risk preferences across most elicitation methods, whereas others—the household's dependency ratio, wealth, and covariate shocks—are significant in a few methods only. The explanatory power of the models is limited, indicating that other factors are likely to be of greater importance in determining risk preferences. The results can help target safety nets, encourage investments, and lead to the development of more applicable methods for assessing risk preferences of smallholders in developing countries.

1.1 Conceptual framework of the FEW nexus 2.1 Per capita production in Malawi, Mozambique, and SSA regions 2.2 Daily protein supply in Malawi, Mozambique, and Southern Africa 2.3 Energy supply in Malawi, Mozambique, and Southern Africa 2.4 Types of cooking stoves: clay, rocket, and three-stone traditional 2.5 Comparison of fuelwood consumption and cooking time for cooking stoves 2.6 Distribution of cookstove programs in Africa south of the Sahara, 1984-2010 3.1 Circular flow of income in an economy 3.2 Ex ante analysis scoring 3.3 No market constraints 3.4 Full parameterization (includes all constraints) 3.5 No market constraints, no groundwater, and surface runoff included 3.6 No market constraints, no runoff, and groundwater available to 7 m below ground only 3.7 Sensitivity analysis as a function of linear shifts in the scoring function of each variable for the fully parameterized motor-pump model for all of SSA 4.1 Adoption of soil fertility management and irrigation in Mozambique v ABSTRACT This study summarizes the concept of the food-energy-water security nexus (FEW nexus). The aim is to create awareness about the importance of the nexus and to enable stakeholders to consider interconnections between the sectors in their work. The FEW nexus is discussed in the context of Africa south of the Sahara (SSA)-using Malawi and Mozambique as case studies. Even though analyzing food, energy, and water security issues simultaneously is critical given the interconnections, summarizing interventions with the FEW nexus approach in Malawi and Mozambique, we found that there are only a limited number of interventions in place. Additionally, this study reviews macro-and microeconomic models that are able to analyze the FEW nexus. On the macrolevel, especially general equilibrium models are discussed, because they show trade-offs and synergies of nexus interventions at all economic levels. These models can help guide policymakers' understanding of nexus effects ex ante and convince them to think beyond their respective political departments. On the microlevel, the impact of nexus interventions can be assessed with qualitative and quantitative approaches. There are specific challenges for nexus interventions when it comes to aggregation and planning of the targeting. A secondary data analysis of nexus interventions shows that existing data is not sufficient to conduct research specifically related to the FEW nexus. The results of this study will help research programs to reflect the key questions required to enhance adoption of FEW technologies and inform policymakers as they formulate policies that will exploit the strong synergies of food security, energy, and water investments.

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