Based on research on the development of streaming solutions across media forms and industries, this article traces the dynamics and dimensions of the notion of streaming. It theorizes streaming as an evolving concept, and argues against strict, set and limited definitions such as those suggested by Lotz and Herbert et al. A short substantive and industrial history of streaming is provided, recognizing its many manifestations and variations. Five key dimensions are identified, and trends and traits within each of them discussed: (1) professional versus user-generated streaming, (2) legal versus piracy streaming, (3) on-demand versus live streaming, (4) streaming on dedicated versus multi-feature platforms, and (5) niche versus general-audience streaming. The article concludes by pointing out how streaming is a concept that metaphorically unites media research across industries, practices, and media forms, encouraging more comparative research.
While the transformation of the traditionally print-based book industries to digital and multi-format publishing industries is the subject of much debate, the audiobook industry has largely escaped attention. In a sense, this is curious, given the fact that audiobook publishers have been at the forefront of the technological transformation of the book industry from reel-to-reel tapes and long-playing records all the way into the digital era. All the while, audiobook publishing has never been entirely integrated into the publishing world at large and has somewhat remained an outsider industry, often seen to cater for niche markets. In this article I argue that traditional book publishers venturing into digital publishing can learn from successes and failures in the history of audiobook innovations. Basing the discussion in theories of cultural production and innovation, the article explores the interplay between technology and publishing strategy by way of analysing audiobook technologies from 1980 to 2012 in light of industry and technology developments in the book industry in general, with specific attention to the Norwegian audiobook market, where four case studies of publishers and service providers are analysed. The central issue in the article is how and to what extent the development of audiobook publishing technologies is indicative of technology development in the book industries in general.
Despite there being more than a decade since the introductions of Netflix’ and Spotify’s online services, few attempts have been made to thoroughly examine and conceptualize streaming and streaming services across culture and media industries. The argument proposed here is that streaming constitutes a distinct form of digital media distribution network, what I refer to as the streaming network. The article asks what constitutes the parts or nodes of such a streaming network, and further what the power relationships between the various parts are. The analysis uses Spotify, Apple Music, Netflix, and Kindle Unlimited as examples, building on a wide array of primary and secondary document sources. The analysis contains a stepwise discussion and visualization of how human and nonhuman actors in this streaming network are connected by way of flows of content, data, and money, as well as by relationships of control, access, and exposure. The argument draws on theories of network power, platform power, and algorithmic power. The analysis highlights the asymmetrical relationships between, on the one hand, users and content providers, and on the other, streaming providers and device and software makers. No single actor in the network is able to exercise full control, but users and content originators are seen as particularly vulnerable. Streaming providers and device and software makers are able to maneuver the network to strengthen their relative position.
Strømmetjenester bruker gjerne algoritmer for å presentere og filtrere innhold, basert på prediksjoner og kalkulasjoner om hva brukerne liker. Anbefalings-og presentasjonsalgoritmene kan imidlertid sies å fungere som bare ett av flere nivåer der medieinnhold gjøres tilgjengelig. Før algoritmene utarbeider sine anbefalinger, er databasen som de tar utgangspunkt i, allerede strukturert på andre nivåer. I denne artikkelen utvikler vi begrepet «relativ tilgjengelighet» og diskuterer hvilke nivåer av tilgjengeliggjøring som gjør seg gjeldende i strømmetjenester. Vi argumenterer for at tilgjengeliggjøring må forstås som en pyramide med fem nivåer: ontologisk, teknologisk, juridisk, økonomisk og algoritmisk tilgjengelighet. Vi undersøker disse nivåene empirisk gjennom en analyse av et datamateriale fra Norsk filminstitutt, samt en egen undersøkelse av brukerrapporterte anbefalinger gjennom Netflix og Storytel. Vi finner at norske filmer generelt er dårlig representert i de mest utbredte strømmetjenestene. Filminnholdet er også spredt på ulike tjenester. En tilsvarende fragmentering finner vi også for det boklige materialet. Vi diskuterer også årsaker til manglende innhold og fragmentering. Artikkelen kan leses som en kritikk og nyansering av de mest dramatiske situasjonsbeskrivelsene og prediksjonene om algoritmenes makt. Vi konkluderer med at det er grunn til å undersøke mer kritisk hvilke rom algoritmene jobber innenfor.
Music and television streaming services present users with abundant catalogues of content available on demand. We investigate whether users respond by narrowing or widening the diversity of content they consume. Further, we examine how the different logics characterising music and television streaming are mirrored in the number of streaming services people use. To do so, we compare non-, sporadic, regular, and frequent users of television and music streaming services. Findings from a cross-sectional survey in Norway show that frequent streamers consume a wider variety of genres and rely on more services. Our results also indicate that streaming has gone from a first-mover activity to a standard consumer mode. This study indicates that we can expect continued growth in television streamers, whereas the music streaming industry seems more consolidated.
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