Global conservation policy and action have largely neglected protecting and monitoring genetic diversity—one of the three main pillars of biodiversity. Genetic diversity (diversity within species) underlies species’ adaptation and survival, ecosystem resilience, and societal innovation. The low priority given to genetic diversity has largely been due to knowledge gaps in key areas, including the importance of genetic diversity and the trends in genetic diversity change; the perceived high expense and low availability and the scattered nature of genetic data; and complicated concepts and information that are inaccessible to policymakers. However, numerous recent advances in knowledge, technology, databases, practice, and capacity have now set the stage for better integration of genetic diversity in policy instruments and conservation efforts. We review these developments and explore how they can support improved consideration of genetic diversity in global conservation policy commitments and enable countries to monitor, report on, and take action to maintain or restore genetic diversity.

1. Genetic diversity is one of the three main levels of biodiversity recognised in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Fundamental for species adaptation to environmental change, genetic diversity is nonetheless under-reported within global and national indicators. When it is reported, the focus is often narrow and confined to domesticated or other commercial species.2. Several approaches have recently been developed to address this shortfall in reporting on genetic diversity of wild species. While multiplicity of approaches is helpful in any development process, it can also lead to confusion among policy makers and heighten a perception that conservation genetics is too abstract to be of use to organisations and governments.3. As the developers of five of the different approaches, we have come together to explain how various approaches relate to each other and propose a scorecard, as a unifying reporting mechanism for genetic diversity. 4. Policy implications. We believe the proposed combined approach captures the strengths of its components and is practical for all nations and subnational governments. It is scalable and can be used to evaluate species conservation projects as well as genetic conservation projects.

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) grows some 400 km south of its current native limit at Wybunbury Moss, Cheshire, UK, on a peatland around a small floating bog (Schwingmoor). Cone and seed production of trees, which have been growing on the site for just over 100 years, were investigated over 3 years. Cones matured between September and March and seed shedding began in early April. The number of cones produced per reproductive tree ranged between 31 and 2,418, with a total average of 685 cones tree -1 y -1 . A strong relationship was found between tree diameter and seed production which allowed the prediction of annual seed production. Scots pine on this peatland produced between 766,874 and 950,000 seeds ha -1 annually with a germination percentage of 64%. The predicted number of seeds reaching the central bog (maximum of 120 m from the trees) every year was c. 16,000.

This account presents information on all aspects of the biology of Aesculus hippocastanum L. (horse‐chestnut) that are relevant to understanding its ecological characteristics and behaviour. The main topics are presented within the standard framework of the Biological Flora of the British Isles: distribution, habitat, communities, responses to biotic factors, responses to environment, structure and physiology, phenology, floral and seed characters, herbivores and disease, history and conservation. Aesculus hippocastanum is a large deciduous tree native to the Balkan Peninsula. Native populations are small (<10,000 trees total) and apparently in decline, but the tree has been widely planted in gardens and streets across Europe and other temperate areas from the 17th century onwards. It was voted the UK's favourite tree in a 2017 poll. As a British neophyte, it is occasionally naturalised in open wooded habitats. Horse‐chestnut is renowned for the beauty of its large (up to 30 cm long), upright panicles of white flowers, and for the large seeds (up to 42 g each) used in the formerly common children's game of “conkers.” More recently, the triterpene glycosides, extractable from various plant parts but especially the seeds, have been widely used in medicine. In much of Europe, horse‐chestnut is affected by chestnut bleeding canker (caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. aesculi), the horse‐chestnut leaf miner Cameraria ohridella and the leaf blotch fungus Guignardia aesculi. The canker is likely to lead to death of <10% individuals, but seeds of plants infested with the leaf miner are 40%–50% smaller, which may affect long‐term establishment in non‐planted areas.

Summary1. This account presents information on all aspects of the biology of Ruscus aculeatus L. (Butcher's broom) that are relevant to understanding its ecological characteristics and behaviour. The main topics are presented within the standard framework of the Biological Flora of the British Isles: distribution, habitat, communities, responses to biotic factors, responses to environment, structure and physiology, phenology, floral and seed characters, herbivores and disease, history and conservation. 2. Ruscus aculeatus is a multistemmed monocotyledonous shrub with leaves functionally replaced by cladodes and photosynthetic stems. It is native to southern England primarily in dry shaded woodland and hedgerows (but widely planted elsewhere) often, but not exclusively, on base-rich soil. It is rarely abundant in any habitat, usually forming widely spread discrete clumps. 3. Ruscus aculeatus is remarkably shade tolerant and drought resistant with low water conductance and transpiration, and water storage in the cladodes. Yet unusually for a drought-tolerant stemphotosynthetic plant, it prefers shady environments. 4. The flowers have few if any pollinating mechanisms, low seed production and fruit/seed dispersal are largely ineffective, which may be a relict of its evolution in a tropical Tertiary climate. Population survival primarily depends upon vegetative spread from stout rhizomes, aided by the plant's general unpalatability. 5. Over-collecting for medicinal steroidal saponins has caused some population declines, particularly in eastern Europe, but it is otherwise facing few conservation problems.