A successful viral infection is due to the effective evasion of viruses from the immune system. The entry of viruses is usually detected by different cellular receptors including PRRs. Recognition of the viral genome leads to the production of interferons through a signaling stream. This review article will give brief information about escaping mechanisms of DNA and RNA viruses from the host immune system. Glimpses of these strategies include viral endonuclease activity, cap snatching of host mRNA, the formation of replication organelles, stress granule formation, membrane modifications, action of proteases, and evasion from ISGs. Moreover, we will discuss the strategies of DNA viruses to inhibit immune responses include Subversion of mRNA, transcriptional factors, Adaptor proteins, PRRs, evasion from T lymphocytes, Genomic Diversity, Theft or seize of host defense proteins, Imitation of host factors like affecting cytokines and chemokines of the host, and suppression or inhibition of apoptosis, Proteasomal degradation of host antiviral proteins by DNA Viruses. This knowledge is pivotal in understanding of different methodologies that viruses have created to escape antiviral cellular reactions of the host as well as an understanding of virus-host interactions and the origin of viral pathogenesis. Also, this knowledge is significant for the design of gene targeting vectors, antiviral vaccines, and the development of effective treatments directed against DNA and RNA viruses.
The dissemination of carbapenem resistance among the family of Enterobacteriaceae is one of the most potent intimidation to an individual's health nowadays. In this research, the foremost focus is on carbapenemase-producing Klebsiella species. Carbapenems are a genre of betalactam ring containing antibiotics which includes meropenem imipenem, ertapenem, biapenem, doripenem & panipenem. Carbapenems are highly effective antibiotics as they arrest the cell wall of bacteria so if the resistance against carbapenem emerges than it will subsequently lead to narrow therapeutic options. The foremost purpose of this research is the determination of carbapenem resistance among Klebsiella species. Fifty (n=50) gram-negative samples were collected from the Centralized Diagnostic Laboratory of Karachi, Pakistan. All the samples were sub-cultured on EMB (eosin methylene blue) agar to differentiate them from other Enterobacteriaceaes. MacConkey agar was used to check lactose fermentation. Gram staining and capsule staining for morphological identification, biochemical tests (Indole, Methyl red, Voges Proskauer, Citrate, (IMViC), Triple Sugar Iron (TSI)) were carried out to differentiate among Klebsiella species. Carbapenem resistance against Imipenem and Meropenem was identified by the disc diffusion method based on the Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute (CLSI) guidelines. Out of which 26 isolates were identified as Klebsiella spp. In these 26 isolates, 10 isolates were identified as Klebsiella pneumoniae. Further results showed that K. pneumoniae isolates were more resistant to Meropenem as compared to the Imipenem. All ten isolates of K. pneumoniae were found resistant to Meropenem while only two isolates of K. pneumoniae were resistant to Imipenem. This study was done to determine the carbapenem resistance among Klebsiella so that data can be provided which will help in rapid and appropriate treatment of patients so that in the future we can use alternative drugs or cocktail of drugs to treat infections caused by Klebsiella.
Panche et al. [2]. They are extracted from plants and are classified as a low molecular weight compound. Rose, onion is the major source of flavonoids Aleksandra et al. [3]. Apart from antibacterial and antifungal properties, flavonoids are also responsible for color and aroma production in flowers Dr. Nicola. [4]. They are helpful for plants in a way that they act as a UV filter which protects the DNA of plant from UV radiations Burak M et al. [5]. Classification is done based on C ring which contains carbon Calhoun et al. [6]. Terpene is a biological compound present in the rose flower. Terpenes have great industrial and pharmaceutical usage. In food industries, it is used as a flavoring agent or fragrancing agent. Pharmaceutical industries have medicinal uses of terpene Jiang z et al. [7]. Concentrates in ongoing decades have shown that terpenes apply anti-inflammatory impacts by hindering different proinflammatory pathways. Terpenes have been shown to exert activity against cancer and tumors Cho KS et al. [8].
Milk is a proper and complete healthy diet for all individuals. Milk contains all the basic nutrients such as carbon, calcium, and rich water content which facilities bacterial contamination if hygienic conditions are not properly maintained. Different types of bacteria such as gram-positive and gram-negative can contaminate milk in many ways such as use of unclean utensils, storage tanks, and other factors which includes diseased animals, or/and animals suffering from mastitis. Most commonly isolated organisms from raw milk samples are E. coli, Shigella, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella, and spores forming Bacillus species which can cause serious enteric illness if contaminated consumed. Pasteurization process extensively reduces the risk of contamination and makes the milk safer for drinking. In this study, we have collected 24 samples in total of raw milk (n=12) and pasteurized milk (n=12). Further, we processed the milk samples on different agars. For raw milk, we used Nutrient agar, Mannitol salt agar, and Eosin Methylene blue agar whereas for pasteurized milk we have used dye reduction test. Raw milk indicated high contamination as compared to the milk which is pasteurized. Even some locally available pasteurized milk has detected contaminating agents. As the results indicated that raw milk is highly contaminated so for the safety of individuals and the population, it is suggested that we should use pasteurized milk in our daily life. Furthermore, we must apply some safety precautions including maintenance of tanks, storage temperature, and sterilization of utensils in which milk is kept.
Background: Functional Gastrointestinal (GI) disease is a term that refers to a range of disease conditions involving chronic diarrhea, irritable bowel syndrome, constipation, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and lactose intolerance. Statistical reports have documented >40% of the world's population is being afflicted by functional GI disorders. Consequences of frequent intake of antibiotics include mortality of gut microflora, antibiotic-associated diarrhea, the establishment of antibiotic resistance, and inference with healthy bodily functions. To overcome the harms of antibiotics, studies are being conducted to determine the potential of probiotics as alternatives to antibiotics. Aim of Study: The purpose of constructing this literature review is to outline the potential attributes of Kefir and to assess the solitary efficiency of this beverage in the amelioration of GI disease conditions. Methodology: Extraction of data entailed digging of literature hubs including PubMed, PubMed Central, Research Gate, Science Direct, and Google Scholar, employing a different combination of keywords to retrieve substantial details. Selection criteria of the articles involved the published reports of preceding 10 years (2012-2021) that exhibited relevancy with the topic Conclusion: Kefir grains having different origins provide a distinct array of antimicrobial spectrums and are found to be effective against different pathogens. IBDs, diarrheal sicknesses, and constipation can be alleviated by the consumption of this beverage. Moreover, the probioticantibiotic combination is also essential for the mitigation of several diseases. The synergistic impact of several microbial strains is vital for the treatment of celiac disease. Lactose maldigestion can be relieved by the consumption of kefir having β-galactosidase enzyme activity.
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