A human organism depends on stable glucose blood levels in order to maintain its metabolic needs. Glucose is considered to be the most important energy source, and glycolysis is postulated as a backbone pathway. However, when the glucose supply is limited, ketone bodies and amino acids can be used to produce enough ATP. In contrast, for the functioning of the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) glucose is essential and cannot be substituted by other metabolites. The PPP generates and maintains the levels of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) needed for the reduction in oxidized glutathione and protein thiols, the synthesis of lipids and DNA as well as for xenobiotic detoxification, regulatory redox signaling and counteracting infections. The flux of glucose into a PPP—particularly under extreme oxidative and toxic challenges—is critical for survival, whereas the glycolytic pathway is primarily activated when glucose is abundant, and there is lack of NADP+ that is required for the activation of glucose-6 phosphate dehydrogenase. An important role of glycogen stores in resistance to oxidative challenges is discussed. Current evidences explain the disruptive metabolic effects and detrimental health consequences of chronic nutritional carbohydrate overload, and provide new insights into the positive metabolic effects of intermittent fasting, caloric restriction, exercise, and ketogenic diet through modulation of redox homeostasis.

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A human organism depends on stable glucose blood levels in order to maintain the metabolic needs. Glucose is considered as the most important energy source and glycolysis is postulated as a backbone pathway. However, when glucose supply is limited, ketone bodies and amino acids can be used to produce enough ATP. In contrast, for the functioning of pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) glucose is essential and cannot be substituted for by other metabolites. PPP generates and maintains levels of NADPH needed for reduction of oxidized glutathione and protein thiols, synthesis of lipids and DNA as well as for xenobiotics detoxification, regulatory redox signaling and counteracting infections. Flux of glucose into a PPP, particularly under extreme oxidative and toxic challenges is critical for survival, whereas the glycolytic pathway is primarily activated when glucose is abundant, and there is lack of NADP+ that is required for activation of glucose-6 phosphate dehydrogenase. An important role of glycogen stores in resistance to oxidative challenges is discussed. Current evidence explains disruptive metabolic effects and detrimental health consequences of chronic nutritional carbohydrate overload and provides new insights into positive metabolic effects of intermittent fasting, caloric restriction, exercise, and ketogenic diet through modulation of redox homeostasis.

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Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) and 1,2-palmitoyl-phosphatidic acid (DPPA) liposomes, prepared by conventional rotary evaporation method, have similar structural organization, though they have significant differences. The similarity is that both types of lipids create standard bilayer liposomes with strong hydrophobic forces between lipids tails and with homogeneous bonds of hydrogen and electrostatic nature between hydrophilic lipids heads. By the calorimetric method, it has been shown that hydrophobic bonds break but liposomes' destruction does not occur by heating till 150 °C. As for bonds between lipid heads in liposomes, their cooperative destruction takes place at 41 °C for DPPC and 66 °C for DPPA liposomes. In the case of thermal distraction of DPPC liposomes, two so-called pre transitions peaks were observed before the main transition peak, which indicates that DPPC liposomes' structure is multilamellar. DPPA liposomes have one cooperative heat absorption peak, which points to a unilamellar structure of such liposomes. Substances of hydrophobic/hydrophilic nature, incorporated into the liposomes, are placed in hydrophobic or hydrophilic parts of liposomes, which lead to a change in calorimetric peak shapes and thermodynamic parameters. It has been shown that gold nanoparticles, incorporated into the DPPC liposomes, are able to enter Caco-2 cells. In contrast, these nanoparticles do not enter red blood cells.

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