This study investigates Philippine folklore of saltwater crocodiles to understand the relationships that people have with them from an anthropological perspective. The collected folklore was classified into eight types: 1) ancestor, 2) monkey heart, 3) red hen, 4) execution, 5) incarnation, 6) deception, 7) monster, and 8) Lusmore. The analysis shows that the crocodile folklore of the Philippines is strongly connected to that of the indigenous people in Borneo. Filipino people tend to recognize crocodiles as both fierce and foolish because they are harmful to their society. In their history, they have rigorously hunted crocodiles for their skin, causing their relationship with them to significantly diminish over time. However, crocodiles are also seen as having the supernatural power to cure sick people, so eating them is prohibited among the Pala’wan on Palawan Island, for instance. This paper concludes that the Filipino people and the crocodile were able to build a harmonious relationship of coexistence in the past, and the current corrupted relationship must change for its future wellbeing.

This study examines the uses of domestic water buffalo milk in south Sumatra, Indonesia, one of the few areas in not only Indonesia but also the Philippines where the rare practice of milking animals occurs in Southeast Asia. In south Sumatra, both milking domestic water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) locally known as kerbao pampangan—and making milk products are frequently practiced. The research was thus conducted into the breeding and milking of domestic water buffalo and making of milk products in a Muslim village of the OKI District (Ogan Komering Ilir Regency), south Sumatra, using participant observation, interviews, and questionnaires, to understand the life and culture of the villagers. The findings revealed domestic water buffalo to be the main livestock used for the production and sale of either meat or milk products. Heated milk products, such as candy (gulo puan, sagon puan) and jelly (jerry susu) are produced, probably because fresh milk risks lactose intolerance or milk contaminants, but not yogurt (dadihi), which is produced in north Sumatra. Investigating such unique uses of milk in south Sumatra from an ecological anthropological viewpoint attests to an evident culture of milking domestic water buffalo in south Sumatra, and that arises from the relationship between the people and their livestock. Furthermore, although the murrah (buffalo) is rapidly replacing the domestic water buffalo, due to its higher milk yield, across Southeast Asia, the latter remains predominant in the area.

terra australis 39 create the traps, usage techniques, the environment in which they were utilised, or their structural and functional attributes from a fishing ecology perspective. In contrast, Rau (1979) studied the methods of small fishing businesses in the areas surrounding Cebu from an ecological perspective, reporting the names of the fishing methods, the structure of the tools, the targeted fish and fishing seasons, the environment in which the traps are used, and the productivity of these fishing methods. Rau's research is therefore valuable as a baseline reference point. A rough understanding of moray fishing can be gleaned from the preceding studies and newspaper articles (Garcia 2003), but to date, ethnographic research focusing on moray fishing in the Philippines has not been conducted. Given this backdrop, in 2005, the author conducted a preliminary ecological anthropological study of moray trap fishing on Mactan Island, Cebu. This study describes the actual construction of the moray trap and an analysis of the time periods during which the trap is used in relation to tide and weather conditions at the trapping locations (Tsuji 2007b). Due to scheduling constraints, the author was only able to do an on-board study once, making it impossible to conduct a sufficient weight study necessary for productivity discussions. In order to compensate for this deficiency, another study was conducted in 2008. This report documents the information from that study, intermingling data from 2005 as needed. The primary objectives of this report are 1) to disclose the true condition of moray fishing in Cordova on Mactan Island in Cebu, Philippines, and 2) to document and discuss the technique and ecology of moray trap fishing including a) the structure of the trap, b) the times and usage of the trapping grounds, and c) the effectiveness of the trap. An additional goal of this document is to clarify how the moray trap fishing technique reflects the ecological environment of the region.

The wedge sea hare (Dolabella auricularia) is a mollusk species found in tidal flats and is consumed as food around the Philippines. The practice of consuming its internal organs is probably found only on the Mactan Island. The Problem of this study is to clarify why people collect the internal organs of wedge sea hare. The objective is a gleaner who have special skills to identify the sea hare burrows. Participatory observation and measurement method were employed for this research. As a result, it found that the gleaners precisely identify occupied sea hare burrows using unique skills, and to remove the edible internal organs from the disposable body. Local people regard the internal organs as a nutrition. As a conclusion, this practice must be an adaptation to an environment where vegetable protein is scarce due to a limestone-based soil unsuitable for agriculture. Thus, the role of the wedge sea hare in a unique culture was also developed.Kelinci laut (Dolabella auricularia) adalah spesies moluska yang ditemukan di dataran pasang surut dan dikonsumsi sebagai makanan di sekitar Filipina. Praktik mengkonsumsi organ internalnya mungkin hanya ditemukan di Pulau Mactan. Masalah penelitian ini adalah untuk menjelaskan mengapa orang mengumpulkan organ internal kelinci laut. Tujuannya adalah seorang pengumpul yang memiliki keterampilan khusus untuk mengidentifikasi lubang kelinci laut. Metode pengamatan dan pengukuran partisipatif digunakan untuk penelitian ini. Sebagai hasilnya, ditemukan bahwa para pengumpul secara tepat mengidentifikasi lubang yang didiami kelinci laut dengan menggunakan keterampilan unik, dan mengeluarkan organ internal yang dapat dimakan dari tubuh yang bisa dibuang. Masyarakat lokal menganggap organ dalam sebagai nutrisi. Sebagai kesimpulan, praktik ini harus merupakan adaptasi terhadap lingkungan di mana protein nabati langka karena tanah berbahan dasar batugamping yang tidak cocok untuk pertanian. Dengan demikian, peran kelinci laut dalam budaya unik juga dikembangkan.

This study explores mouse deer folktales from the Philippines. In these tales, mouse deer, called pilanduk, appear as tricksters. This study aims to explore such folktales and investigate why these animals are depicted in this way. The research method involved material studies designed to collect folktales for analysis and collecting, reading, and examining the details of literature about animal folktales, especially folktales about mouse deer in the Philippines. Prior to the library research, fieldwork was conducted on Balabac Island in Palawan Province. Results indicate that mouse deer folktales exist among at least four Muslim and indigenous groups on Mindanao Island, although mouse deer are a species native to Balabac Island of Palawan Province. Five specific mouse deer folktales were examined. In each case, the mouse deer functioned as a trickster, killing others, ridiculing their misfortunes, and plundering marriages. This article examines the characteristics of these folktales and discusses why mouse deer appear in folktales of ethnic groups, mainly on Mindanao Island. Variant mouse deer folktales are also found in Indonesia and Malaysia. It is possible that mouse deer folktales came from Islamic communities in Southeast Asia and that they may show cultural norms among Muslim societies.

This study investigates Kagan folktales to understand the culture present in oral literature. It utilized a descriptive method and ethnographic process in the study design. The collected folktales mirrored the following components of culture: 1) Social practices, i.e., Rido (family rivalries), use of gong and balao (musical instruments), wedding, use of native baskets, dowry system for courtship, slavery, use of malong (indigenous clothing). 2) Economic practices, like farming, fishing, and barter trading. 3) Political practices, including Datu and Sultanate systems. 4) Religious practices. The analysis shows that the folktales reflect the life and works of the Kagan in Pantukan municipality, Davao de Oro, and Lupon municipality, Davao Oriental, of Mindanao Island of the Philippines. The cultural role of folktales is getting diluted in the Philippines. However, this study found that folktales have a serious purpose of preserving, developing, and sustaining indigenous culture for a better future. In conclusion, the Kagan and their folktales reveal the transcendence of folk beliefs, customs, and traditions to benefit their culture in an acculturated society today.

Bamboo is an important resource in Southeast Asia, which is a hotspot of bamboo species diversity globally, and has historically contributed to livelihoods in various environments. Subsistence livelihoods are still widely found in Southeast Asia, especially in isolated villages, and various kinds of plant resources, including bamboo, support local livelihoods. Understanding the relationship between human society and plants is important to understand the historical process of expansion and adaptation of human society in Southeast Asia; however, despite its importance, information on bamboo utilization remains limited. A field survey was conducted in a village located in the mangrove area of Palawan Island, the Philippines. The residents were the Pala’wan. Data was obtained through participatory observation and interview survey to at least 30 villagers. In the village, 10 bamboo species, both wild and cultivated, were utilized for various purposes, with a large and specific demand for bamboo of cultivated species. These species are medium to large in size, and some are distributed widely both inmainland and insular Southeast Asia. These bamboo species are considered to have been brought by Southeast Asian people along with other useful plants and have adapted to the new environment. To understand the long-term relationship between Asian people and plants, it is necessary to consider bamboo, and multidisciplinary integration of knowledge, which can be called as the “ethno-bamboo approach,” can uncover new aspects of this relationship.

This paper analyzes the structure and content of Philippine folktales featuring monkeys (hereinafter referred to as “Filipino monkey folktales”) based on a literature review to explore Philippine society and culture. Subsequently, this paper highlights 20 cases of Filipino monkey folktales. These cases are classified: (1) nine villain type, (2) six human-origin type, (3) two prince type, (4) two trickster type, and (5) one demon type. It is observed that 15 out of 20 cases were “villain type” and “human-origin type.” Thus, it can be deduced that Filipino monkey folktales present relatively negative images of monkeys. This depiction reflects the negative aspects of human thinking and behavior, and it is thought that monkey folktales are often told to educate children and maintain social order. In other words, it can be said that monkey folktales are an honest projection of Filipino morals, human relationships, and social norms. For Filipinos, the monkey that appears in folklore is thought to play the role of a mirror, helping them reflect on themselves to ensure that their behavior is socially acceptable; thus, monkey folktales emphasize social norms. Finally, this paper concludes that the reciprocal relationships that Filipinos value the most are social and cultural norms, contrary to the cunning andselfishness exhibited by monkeys in folklore.