The hormones progesterone and estrogen and, more precisely, their sophisticated interdependent fluctuations over the course of the female human lifespan, have long been known to play a dominant role in the physiological development and homeostasis of the human female. What is only recently coming to light, however, is that the fluctuation of these two hormones also plays a crucial role in neurological and psychological development and function which impacts brain function, cognition, emotional status, sensory processing, appetite, and more. The ability of reproductive hormones to impact psychoneurological processes involves the interplay of several body systems, lending credibility to the view of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) as a disorder founded in real biochemical disturbances. The effects of the menstrual cycle on cognitive, emotional, and sensory function in the female of childbearing age are reviewed. In addition, recent evidence is discussed which confirms the biological basis of PMS as a real disorder of primarily autoimmune origin.
Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is an insidious infection that afflicts a large proportion of women of all ages, and 5 to 8% of affected women experience recurrent VVC (RVVC). The aim of this study was to explore the possible importance of vaginal bacterial communities in reducing the risk of RVVC. The species composition and diversity of microbial communities were evaluated for 42 women with and without frequent VVC based on profiles of terminal restriction fragment polymorphisms of 16S rRNA genes and phylogenetic analysis of cloned 16S rRNA gene sequences from the numerically dominant microbial populations. The data showed that there were no significant differences between the vaginal microbial communities of women in the two groups (likelihood score, 5.948; bootstrap P value, 0.26). Moreover, no novel bacteria were found in the communities of women with frequent VVC. The vaginal communities of most women in both groups (38/42; 90%) were dominated by species of Lactobacillus. The results of this study failed to provide evidence for the existence of altered or unusual vaginal bacterial communities in women who have frequent VVC compared to women who do not have frequent VVC. The findings suggest that commensal vaginal bacterial species may not be able to prevent VVC.
Previous in vitro and in vivo animal studies showed that O(2) and CO(2) concentrations can affect virulence of pathogenic bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus. The objective of this work was to measure O(2) and CO(2) levels in the vaginal environment during tampon wear using newly available sensor technology. Measurements by two vaginal sensors showed a decrease in vaginal O(2) levels after tampon insertion. These decreases were independent of the type of tampons used and the time of measurement (mid-cycle or during menstruation). These results are not in agreement with a previous study that concluded that oxygenation of the vaginal environment during tampon use occurred via delivery of a bolus of O(2) during the insertion process. Our measurements of gas levels in menses showed the presence of both O(2) and CO(2) in menses. The tampons inserted into the vagina contained O(2) and CO(2) levels consistent with atmospheric conditions. Over time during tampon use, levels of O(2) in the tampon decreased and levels of CO(2) increased. Tampon absorbent capacity, menses loading, and wear time influenced the kinetics of these changes. Colonization with S. aureus had no effect on the gas profiles during menstruation. Taken collectively, these findings have important implications on the current understanding of gaseous changes in the vaginal environment during menstruation and the potential role(s) they may play in affecting bacterial virulence factor production.
Gene probes derived from the insertion sequence IS986, which have previously been shown to differentiate isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis for epidemiological analysis, are also capable of distinguishing two groups of BCG vaccine strains. Most BCG strains have a single copy of IS986, at the same chromosomal site, while the Brazilian, Japanese and USSR strains have an additional copy at a different, common location. These results correlate with the results of previous antigenic analysis and may reflect a different clonal origin of the two groups of BCG strains.
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