Natural forests in Vietnam have experienced rapid declines in the last 70 years, as a result of degradation from logging and conversion of natural forests to timber and rubber plantations. Degradation of natural forests leads to loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, impacting the livelihoods of surrounding communities. Efforts to address ongoing loss of natural forests, through mechanisms such as Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+), require an understanding of the links between forest degradation and the livelihoods of local communities, which have rarely been studied in Vietnam. We combined information from livelihood surveys, remote sensing and forest inventories around a protected natural forest area in North Central Vietnam. For forest-adjacent communities, we found natural forests contributed an average of 28% of total household income with plantation forests contributing an additional 15%. Although officially prohibited, logging contributed more than half of the total income derived from natural forests. Analysis of Landsat images over the period 1990 to 2014 combined with forest inventory data, demonstrates selective logging was leading to ongoing degradation of natural forests resulting in loss of 3.3 ± 0.8 Mg biomass ha−1 yr−1 across the protected area. This is equivalent to 1.5% yr−1 of total forest biomass, with rates as high as 3% yr−1 in degraded and easily accessible parts of the protected area. We estimate that preventing illegal logging would incur local opportunity costs of USD $4.10 ± 0.90 per Mg CO2, similar to previous estimates for tropical forest protected areas and substantially less than the opportunity costs in timber or agricultural concessions. Our analysis suggests activities to reduce forest degradation in protected areas are likely to be financially viable through Vietnam’s REDD+ program.
In this work, we investigated structure and magnetic properties of Mn65Ga20Al15-xCux (x = 0, 5, 10 and 15) alloy ribbons prepared by melt-spinning method combined with annealing. The annealing temperature was varied from 250°C to 350°C, and the annealing time was changed from 5 h to 20 h. Concentration of Cu and annealing process significantly influence on the formation of the desired phases in the alloy ribbons. The D022-type Mn3Ga crystalline phase with the hexagonal structure, which characterizes hard magnetic property of Mn-Ga based alloys, is enhanced after an appropriate annealing process. The change of grain size after annealing also contributes to the increased coercivity of the alloy ribbons. The highest coercivity of 12.9 kOe and saturation magnetization of 18.7 emu/g are achieved on the alloy ribbons with Cu concentration of 10%. The simultaneous enhancement of these magnetic parameters has an important significance for application possibility of the Mn-Ga based alloys.
Acronyms and abbreviations viAcknowledgments viii Executive summary ix 1 Introduction 2 Study sites and methods 2.1 Study location 2.2 Methods3 National and provincial mangrove distribution and policies 3.1 National mangrove area and distribution 3.2 Provincial mangrove distribution 3.3 Key policies and institutional setting for mangrove governance 3.4 Major international initiatives aimed at mangrove restoration 3.5 Mangrove forest governance across the studied sites 3.6 Economic evaluation of mangrove environmental services in Vietnam 4 The role of mangroves and drivers of mangrove deforestation and degradation 4.1 Local perceptions of the importance and benefits of mangroves 4.2 Changes in mangrove area over time and drivers of mangrove deforestation and degradation 4.3 Local livelihoods 4.4 Mangrove governance across levels 4.5 Incentives and disincentives for mangrove protection and development 4.6 Local participation in mangrove-related projects 4.7 Willingness to pay and to participate in forest protection 5 Discussion Conclusions References List of figures, tables and boxes v 16 Pros and cons of conversion of mangroves to aquaculture and vice versa 17 Local income sources 18 Number of people engaged in different livelihood activities at the studied sites 19 Local use of mangroves 20 Rights and responsibilities on mangrove management 21 Local management of mangroves (percentage) 22 Local perceptions of bodies responsible for mangrove management 23 Past and current mangrove protection initiatives in the studied sites 24 Incentives and disincentives for mangrove protection in studied sites identified by key informants and villagers interviewed 25 Local perceptions on the consequences of non-compliance Box
Box 1. Five key principles of designing a PFES M&E policy learning tool Participants agreed that a policy learning tool for PFES M&E should be: • simple. Stakeholders in general, and policy makers in particular, have expressed their strong interest to have simple methods that government officers at all levels can adopt for their daily work. Government agencies also have limited budgets and time constraints for producing timely data as inputs for policy evaluation and refinement, and complex tools are not feasible for them. Many non-state actors such as NGOs, CSOs and private companies also require simple tools to cross-check and monitor the impacts of PFES. • adaptable to the local context. Although PFES is a national PFES policy in Vietnam, each province, district and commune have different concerns, interests, human and financial resources for PFES implementation and M&E. Therefore, there is no one-size-fits-all formula. The policy learning tool should be seen as a flexible approach for analyzing and interpreting the impacts of PFES according to local needs, interests and capacities. • low-cost and realistic. In developing countries in general, and in Vietnam in particular, state budgets and budgets allocated to the forestry sector are limited. Budgets allocated for M&E of forestry policies are often not available or are far from sufficient. Son La province generates USD 65 million/year from PFES policies; however, the provincial people's committee only allows the use of a maximum of USD 5,000/year for PFES M&E work. The PFES policy learning tool, therefore, needs to be designed at low cost and be realistic for policy makers to be able to use and adopt. The depth and complexities policy learning tools depend on the financial and human resources available in each province. • able to prioritize M&E environmental services that generate significant revenue. For example, there are many types of forest environmental services, such as: watershed protection for hydropower plants; water supply and quality maintenance for water supply companies; beauty of the landscape and biodiversity, which tourism companies rely on; carbon sequestration and storage, for combating global climate change; and fish nurseries and habitat and other ecosystem services, for aquaculture farmers listed in Decree No. 99/2010/ND-CP on Vietnam national PFES program. However, to date, 99% of total PFES revenue has been generated from watershed protection for hydropower plants. With limited government budget devoted to M&E, prioritizing M&E for environmental services (in this case watershed protection, which generates significant returned revenue) would be a strategic choice. • participatory. Policy learning is a political and social process in which actors interact with each other to discuss, share ideas and negotiate interests. The collaboration of government staff at all levels and across ministries and sectors, buyers and sellers of environmental services, and NGOs throughout all phases of designing and implementing the M&E system will create a ...
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