Germination provides many potentially unrecognized sources of variation in the regeneration niche. In this study we relate germination requirements and seed size for 16 species of pioneer trees to microclimatic conditions present in gaps in semi-deciduous rain forest in Panama. We found that, whereas increased duration of direct irradiance can be an effective indicator of the presence of a canopy gap across all scales of canopy openness, diel fluctuations in soil temperature effectively discriminate both understory sites and small gaps (25 m 2) from larger gaps. Germination response was significantly related to seed size. Small-seeded species (seed mass 2 mg) showed significantly greater germination in response to irradiance of 22.3 mol·m 2 ·s 1 than in complete darkness. Their germination was unaffected by an increasing magnitude of diel temperature fluctuation up to a species-specific threshold, above which it declined. Large-seeded species (seed mass 2 mg) germinated equally in light and darkness (with one exception) and either showed a positive germination response to an increasing magnitude of temperature fluctuation (four species) or no significant response (four species). The maximum seed burial depth from which seedlings could emerge successfully was strongly positively associated with seed mass. We conclude that photoblastic germination of tropical pioneer trees results in small-seeded species germinating in gaps only when seeds are located in microsites that are suitable for seedling emergence. A positive germination response to increasing temperature fluctuation can stimulate germination of larger-seeded species in larger gaps and when they are buried beneath an opaque soil or litter layer. Therefore, seed size differences constrain the physiological mechanisms of canopy gap detection in tropical pioneer trees and might contribute to observed differences in the distribution of adult plants in relation to canopy gap size.

BackgroundThe degradation of forests in developing countries, particularly those within tropical and subtropical latitudes, is perceived to be an important contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions. However, the impacts of forest degradation are understudied and poorly understood, largely because international emission reduction programs have focused on deforestation, which is easier to detect and thus more readily monitored. To better understand and seize opportunities for addressing climate change it will be essential to improve knowledge of greenhouse gas emissions from forest degradation.ResultsHere we provide a consistent estimation of forest degradation emissions between 2005 and 2010 across 74 developing countries covering 2.2 billion hectares of forests. We estimated annual emissions of 2.1 billion tons of carbon dioxide, of which 53% were derived from timber harvest, 30% from woodfuel harvest and 17% from forest fire. These percentages differed by region: timber harvest was as high as 69% in South and Central America and just 31% in Africa; woodfuel harvest was 35% in Asia, and just 10% in South and Central America; and fire ranged from 33% in Africa to only 5% in Asia. Of the total emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, forest degradation accounted for 25%. In 28 of the 74 countries, emissions from forest degradation exceeded those from deforestation.ConclusionsThe results of this study clearly demonstrate the importance of accounting greenhouse gases from forest degradation by human activities. The scale of emissions presented indicates that the exclusion of forest degradation from national and international GHG accounting is distorting. This work helps identify where emissions are likely significant, but policy developments are needed to guide when and how accounting should be undertaken. Furthermore, ongoing research is needed to create and enhance cost-effective accounting approaches.

The focus of land-use related efforts in developing countries to reduce carbon emissions has been on slowing deforestation, yet international agreements are to reduce emissions from both deforestation and forest degradation (REDD). The second 'D' is poorly understood and accounted for a number of technical and policy reasons. Here we introduce a complete accounting method for estimating emission factors from selective timber harvesting, a substantial form of forest degradation in many tropical developing countries. The method accounts separately for emissions from the extracted log, from incidental damage to the surrounding forest, and from logging infrastructure, and emissions are expressed as units of carbon per cubic meter of timber extracted to allow for simple application to timber harvesting statistics. We applied the method in six tropical countries (Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Guyana, Indonesia, and Republic of Congo), resulting in total emission factors of 0.99-2.33 Mg C m −3 . In all cases, emissions were dominated by damage to surrounding vegetation and the infrastructure rather than the logs themselves, and total emissions represented about 3-15% of the biomass carbon stocks of the associated unlogged forests. We then combined the emission factors with country level logging statistics for nine key timber producing countries represented by our study areas to gain an understanding of the order of magnitude of emissions from degradation compared to those recently reported for deforestation in the same countries. For the nine countries included, emissions from logging were on average equivalent to about 12% of those from deforestation. For those nine countries with relatively low emissions from deforestation, emissions from logging were equivalent to half or more of those from deforestation, whereas for those countries with the highest emissions from deforestation, emissions from logging were equivalent to <10% of those from deforestation. Understanding how to account emissions and the magnitude of each emissions source resulting from tropical timber harvesting practices helps identify where there are opportunities to reduce emissions from the second 'D' in REDD.

Measurement guidelines for forest carbon sequestration were developed to support reporting by public and private entities to greenhouse gas registries. These guidelines are intended to be a reference for designing a forest carbon inventory and monitoring system by professionals with a knowledge of sampling, statistical estimation, and forest measurements. This report provides guidance on defining boundaries; measuring, monitoring, and estimating changes in carbon stocks; implementing plans to measure and monitor carbon; and developing quality assurance and quality control plans to ensure credible and reproducible estimates of the carbon credits. Expected users include entities, e.g., individual landowners, industrial forestry companies and managers of utility company lands, within the United States

Abstract. Germination provides many potentially unrecognized sources of variation in the regeneration niche. In this study we relate germination requirements and seed size for 16 species of pioneer trees to microclimatic conditions present in gaps in semi-deciduous rain forest in Panama. We found that, whereas increased duration of direct irradiance can be an effective indicator of the presence of a canopy gap across all scales of canopy openness, diel fluctuations in soil temperature effectively discriminate both understory sites and small gaps (25 m 2 ) from larger gaps. Germination response was significantly related to seed size. Small-seeded species (seed mass Ͻ2 mg) showed significantly greater germination in response to irradiance of 22.3 mol·m Ϫ2 ·s Ϫ1 than in complete darkness. Their germination was unaffected by an increasing magnitude of diel temperature fluctuation up to a species-specific threshold, above which it declined. Large-seeded species (seed mass Ͼ2 mg) germinated equally in light and darkness (with one exception) and either showed a positive germination response to an increasing magnitude of temperature fluctuation (four species) or no significant response (four species). The maximum seed burial depth from which seedlings could emerge successfully was strongly positively associated with seed mass. We conclude that photoblastic germination of tropical pioneer trees results in smallseeded species germinating in gaps only when seeds are located in microsites that are suitable for seedling emergence. A positive germination response to increasing temperature fluctuation can stimulate germination of larger-seeded species in larger gaps and when they are buried beneath an opaque soil or litter layer. Therefore, seed size differences constrain the physiological mechanisms of canopy gap detection in tropical pioneer trees and might contribute to observed differences in the distribution of adult plants in relation to canopy gap size.