When using bacteriophages to control food-borne bacteria in food production plants and processed food, it is crucial to consider that environmental conditions influence their stability. These conditions can also affect the physiological state of bacteria and consequently host–virus interaction and the effectiveness of the phage ability to reduce bacteria numbers. In this study we investigated the stability, binding, and replication capability of phage P100 and its efficacy to control Listeria monocytogenes under conditions typically encountered in dairy plants. The influences of SDS, Lutensol AO 7, salt, smear water, and different temperatures were investigated. Results indicate that phage P100 is stable and able to bind to the host under most conditions tested. Replication was dependent upon the growth of L. monocytogenes and efficacy was higher when bacterial growth was reduced by certain environmental conditions. In long-term experiments at different temperatures phages were initially able to reduce bacteria up to seven log10 units after 2 weeks at 4°C. However, thereafter, re-growth and development of phage-resistant L. monocytogenes isolates were encountered.

The droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) determines DNA amounts based upon the pattern of positive and negative droplets, according to Poisson distribution, without the use of external standards. However, division into positive and negative droplets is often not clear because a part of the droplets has intermediate fluorescence values, appearing as “rain” in the plot. Despite the droplet rain, absolute quantification with ddPCR is possible, as shown previously for the prfA assay in quantifying Listeria monocytogenes. Nevertheless, reducing the rain, and thus ambiguous results, promotes the accuracy and credibility of ddPCR. In this study, we extensively investigated chemical and physical parameters for optimizing the prfA assay for ddPCR. While differences in the concentration of all chemicals and the dye, quencher and supplier of the probe did not alter the droplet pattern, changes in the PCR cycling program, such as prolonged times and increased cycle numbers, improved the assay.

Effective monitoring of microbial pathogens is essential for a successful preventive food safety and hygiene strategy. However, as most monitoring strategies are growth-based, these tests fail to detect pathogenic bacteria that have entered the viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state. The present study reports the induction of the VBNC state in five human pathogens by commercially available household cleaners in combination with inorganic salts. We determined that non-ionic surfactants, a common ingredient in household cleaners, can induce the VBNC state, when combined with salts. A screening study with 630 surfactant/salt combinations indicates a correlation between the hydrophobicity of the surfactant and VBNC induction in L. monocytogenes, E. coli, S. enterica serovar Typhimurium, S. aureus and toxin-producing enteropathogenic E. coli. Cells that were exposed to combinations of surfactants and salts for 5 min and up to 1 h lost their culturability on standard growth media while retaining their ATP production, fermentation of sugars and membrane integrity, which suggests intact and active metabolism. Screening also revealed major differences between Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria; the latter being more susceptible to VBNC induction. Combinations of such detergents and salts are found in many different environments and reflect realistic conditions in industrial and domestic surroundings. VBNC cells present in industrial environments, food-processing plants and even our daily routine represent a serious health risk due to possible resuscitation, unknown spreading, production of toxins and especially their invisibility to routine detection methods, which rely on culturability of cells and fail to detect VBNC pathogens.

For three decades now, ionic liquids (ILs), organic salts comprising only ions, have emerged as a new class of pharmaceuticals. Although recognition of the antimicrobial effects of ILs is growing rapidly, there is almost nothing known about their possible virucidal activities. This probably reflects the paucity of understanding virus inactivation. In this study, we performed a systematic analysis to determine the effect of specific structural motifs of ILs on three different biological test systems (viruses, bacteria and enzymes). Overall, the effects of 27 different ILs on two non-enveloped and one enveloped virus (P100, MS2 and Phi6), two Gram negative and one Gram positive bacteria (E. coli, P. syringae and L. monocytogenes) and one enzyme (Taq DNA polymerase) were investigated. Results show that while some ILs were virucidal, no clear structure activity relationships (SARs) could be identified for the non-enveloped viruses P100 and MS2. However, for the first time, a correlation has been demonstrated between the effects of ILs on enveloped viruses, bacteria and enzyme inhibition. These identified SARs serve as a sound starting point for further studies.

Viruses shape a diversity of ecosystems by modulating their microbial, eukaryotic, or plant host metabolism. The complexity of virus-host interaction networks is progressively fathomed by novel metagenomic approaches. By using a novel metagenomic method, we explored the virome in mammalian cell cultures and clinical samples to identify an extensive pool of mobile genetic elements in all of these ecosystems. Despite aseptic treatment, cell cultures harbored extensive and diverse phage populations with a high abundance of as yet unknown and uncharacterized viruses (viral dark matter). Unknown phages also predominated in the oropharynx and urine of healthy individuals and patients infected with cytomegalovirus despite demonstration of active cytomegalovirus replication. The novelty of viral sequences correlated primarily with the individual evaluated, whereas relative abundance of encoded protein functions was associated with the ecologic niches probed. Together, these observations demonstrate the extensive presence of viral dark matter in human and artificial ecosystems.-Thannesberger, J., Hellinger, H.-J., Klymiuk, I., Kastner, M.-T., Rieder, F. J. J., Schneider, M., Fister, S., Lion, T., Kosulin, K., Laengle, J., Bergmann, M., Rattei, T., Steininger, C. Viruses comprise an extensive pool of mobile genetic elements in eukaryote cell cultures and human clinical samples.

An increasing number of publications describe the potential of ionic liquids (ILs) as novel antimicrobials, antibacterial coatings and even as active pharmaceutical ingredients. Nevertheless, a major research area, notably their impact on viruses, has so far been neglected. Consequently the aim of this study was to examine the effects of ILs on the infectivity of viruses. A systematic analysis to investigate the effects of defined structural elements of ILs on virus activity was performed using 55 ILs. All structure activity relationships (SARs) were tested on the human norovirus surrogate phage MS2 and phage P100 representing non-enveloped DNA viruses. Results demonstrate that IL SAR conclusions, established for prokaryotes and eukaryotes, are not readily applicable to the examined phages. A virus-type-dependent IL influence was also apparent. Overall, four ILs, covering different structural elements, were found to reduce phage P100 infectivity by ≥4 log10 units, indicating a virucidal effect, whereas the highest reduction for phage MS2 was about 3 log10 units. Results indicate that future applications of ILs as virucidal agents will require development of novel SARs and the obtained results serve as a good starting point for future studies.

Fast and reliable pathogen detection is an important issue for human health. Since conventional microbiological methods are rather slow, there is growing interest in detection and quantification using molecular methods. The droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) is a relatively new PCR method for absolute and accurate quantification without external standards. Using the Listeria monocytogenes specific prfA assay, we focused on the questions of whether the assay was directly transferable to ddPCR and whether ddPCR was suitable for samples derived from heterogeneous matrices, such as foodstuffs that often included inhibitors and a non-target bacterial background flora. Although the prfA assay showed suboptimal cluster formation, use of ddPCR for quantification of L. monocytogenes from pure bacterial cultures, artificially contaminated cheese, and naturally contaminated foodstuff was satisfactory over a relatively broad dynamic range. Moreover, results demonstrated the outstanding detection limit of one copy. However, while poorer DNA quality, such as resulting from longer storage, can impair ddPCR, internal amplification control (IAC) of prfA by ddPCR, that is integrated in the genome of L. monocytogenes ΔprfA, showed even slightly better quantification over a broader dynamic range. Graphical AbstractEvaluating the absolute quantification potential of ddPCR targeting Listeria monocytogenes prfA Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00216-016-9861-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

In recent years, a new potential measure against foodborne pathogenic bacteria was rediscovered—bacteriophages. However, despite all their advantages, in connection to their widespread application in the food industry, negative consequences such as an uncontrolled phage spread as well as a development of phage resistant bacteria can occur. These problems are mostly a result of long-term persistence of phages in the food production environment. As this topic has been neglected so far, this article reviews the current knowledge regarding the effectiveness of disinfectant strategies for phage inactivation and removal. For this purpose, the main commercial phage products, as well as their application fields are first discussed in terms of applicable inactivation strategies and legal regulations. Secondly, an overview of the effectiveness of disinfectants for bacteriophage inactivation in general and commercial phages in particular is given. Finally, this review outlines a possible strategy for users of commercial phage products in order to improve the effectiveness of phage inactivation and removal after application.