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The Paris Agreement advances a heterogeneous approach to international climate cooperation. Such an approach may be undermined by carbon leakage—the displacement of emissions from states with more to less stringent climate policy constraints. Border carbon adjustments offer a promising response to leakage, but they also raise concerns about their compatibility with international trade law. This Article provides a comprehensive analysis of border carbon adjustments and proposes a way to design them that balances legal, administrative, and environmental considerations.

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The carbon leakage debates and the role of trade measures to address undesired effects from unilateral carbon pricing have significant policy implications. The basic principles found in both the climate and trade regimes that promote differentiation of national efforts on the one hand, and non-discrimination of trade partners on the other hand, create a systematic conflict of using trade measures for promoting climate policy. Moreover, the way in which national emissions are accounted has implications for the use and usefulness of trade measures. The UN inventory system relates to the point of production, not consumption, following the 'polluter pays' principle. The question of whether this limits the scope for using border adjustments is examined. In combination with insights from partial equilibrium models, it is attractive for policy makers to focus their efforts on a few carbon-intensive industries. However, policy makers not only need to decide about the environmental integrity, the administration and the political credibility of border measures, but also consider that any such measure, even if it aims at supporting global emission reductions, could disrupt the international climate negotiations processes.Le débat sur les fuites de carbone et le rôle des mesures commerciales pour aborder les effets non-désirés issues d'une fixation unilatérale du prix du carbone ont des implications politiques importantes. Les principes de base au coeur des régimes climatiques comme ceux des échanges commerciaux allant dans le sens d'une différenciation des efforts nationaux d'une part, et de la non-discrimination des partenaires commerciaux d'autre part, créent un conflit systématique dans l'emploi de mesures commerciales en soutien aux politique climatique. En outre, les deux concepts qui expliquent les émissions nationales ont des implications pour l'usage et l'utilité des mesures commerciales. Le système d'inventaire de l'ONU se rapporte au point de production, non de consommation, conformément au principe de pollueur-payeur. L'article explique comment ceci limite le champ d'application des ajustements douaniers. Ajoutant des aperçus de modèles d'équilibre partiel, il serait avantageux pour les responsables de formulation des politiques de focaliser leurs efforts sur quelques industries a forte intensité carbone. Toutefois, les responsables doivent non seulement prendre des décisions à propos de l'intégrité environnementale, de l'administration et de la crédibilité politiques des mesure douanières, mais aussi prendre en compte le fait que de telles mesures, bien qu'elles aient comme but de soutenir la réduction des émissions planétaires, pourraient perturber le processus international des négociations sur le climat. Mots

With national governments almost universally pledging to achieve net zero emissions, a key uncertainty is how net zero policies will affect global equity. It is unclear which policy measures are available for achieving net zero equitably, what the social and environmental implications of these measures will be under global pathways, or how they might be implemented in ways that advance rather than undermine equity. By means of three stylized future pathways, we show that there are potentially serious international and domestic equity effects from global net zero policies, as well as opportunities to achieve an equitable net zero future for all through appropriate policy design.

php (briefly summarizing the outcome of the 13th Convention of the Parties and the basic contours of the "Bali Road Map"). 12 See generally U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change, Copenhagen Climate Change Conference -December 2009, http://unfccc.int/meetings/copenhagen_dec_2009/meeting/6295.php (noting the parties made significant progress towards common climate goals (for example. keeping temperature rise under two degrees Celsius) but did not reach an actual agreement as to the execution of those goals).

China is clamping down on unauthorized coal-fired factories, such as this one, to reduce carbon emissions. 1 9 J U L Y 2 0 1 8 | V O L 5 5 9 | N A T U R E | 3 2 1 COMMENT KEVIN FRAYER/GETTY © 2 0 1 8 S p r i n g e r N a t u r e L i m i t e d . A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .