Perceived control is a central construct in psychology and is key to understanding individual differences in poststress outcomes (Frazier, Berman, & Steward, 2001). The goals of the current studies (using 4 samples of undergraduate students, total N = 1,421) were to examine the relations between different aspects of perceived control and poststress outcomes and to differentiate perceived control over specific events from related constructs (i.e., general control beliefs, coping strategies). To accomplish these goals, we first developed a new measure of perceived past, present, and future control over stressful life events. The data supported the content validity, factor structure, internal consistency and test-retest reliability, and convergent and discriminant validity of the new measure. Consistent with the temporal model of control (Frazier et al., 2001), these 3 forms of control had very different relations with adjustment. Present control was consistently related to lower distress levels in cross-sectional, longitudinal, and prospective analyses. Present control also predicted outcomes beyond the effects of general control beliefs and coping strategies. Past and future control had nonsignificant or positive relations with distress, although future control was associated with better outcomes (i.e., course grades) when the stressor was controllable. Thus, our measure can be used to assess the relations between perceived past, present, and future control and outcomes across a range of stressors. Because the relations between these 3 forms of control and outcomes differ markedly, measures that combine these aspects of control hinder the understanding of the important role of perceived control in adjustment to stress.

This multisite study assessed the prevalence of exposure to traumatic events and associated symptoms among undergraduate students (N ϭ 1,528) using online surveys. Most students (85%) reported having experienced a traumatic event in their lifetime (Time 1) and 21% reported experiencing an event over a 2-month period during college (Time 2). The most common event reported at both time points was the unexpected death of a loved one. Lifetime exposures to family violence, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual assault were associated with higher current distress levels. When nominated as a worst event, sexual assault was associated with the most posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Events that caused intense fear, helplessness, or horror and those that were intentionally caused were associated with higher distress levels. Total number of lifetime traumas consistently had the highest associations with distress levels. Implications for counseling psychology practice, training, and research are discussed.

The temporal model of control (Frazier, Berman, & Steward, 2001) posits that different temporal aspects of control (i.e., past, present, and future) have markedly different relations with adjustment and need to be clearly distinguished from each other. The Perceived Control over Stressful Events Scale (PCOSES; Frazier, Keenan, et al., 2011) was recently developed to assess these different aspects of control and to advance understanding of the role of perceived control in adjustment to stressful life events. The goals of the 2 studies presented here were to expand the temporal model of control by developing a new subscale of the PCOSES and to gather additional evidence regarding the temporal model. In Study 1, we developed a new future likelihood subscale and found evidence for the internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity of its scores in a sample of undergraduate students (N = 201). In Study 2, we confirmed the 4-factor structure of the PCOSES with the new future likelihood subscale using confirmatory factor analysis in another sample of undergraduates (N = 1,084). Study 2 also provided additional evidence, consistent with the temporal model, that the PCOSES subscales were differentially related to distress and other forms of adjustment (e.g., physical health) and that present control and future likelihood were associated with less event-related distress after controlling for 4 known correlates of distress (e.g., social support). Implications for counseling psychology research and practice are discussed.

The objectives of this study were to assess differences in premigration, transit, and resettlement stressor exposure and post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms as a function of demographic characteristics (i.e., gender, ethnicity, age, time in United States) and to examine the concurrent and longitudinal relations between stressor exposure and PTSD symptoms. The sample consisted of adult (18-78 years) Somali and Oromo refugee men and women (N = 437). Qualitative data regarding participants' self-nominated worst stressors collected at Time 2 (T2) informed the development of quantitative scales assessing premigration, transit, and resettlement stress created using items collected at Time 1 (T1). PTSD symptoms were measured at both T1 and T2. Quantitative analyses showed that levels of stressor exposure and PTSD symptoms differed as a function of refugee demographic characteristics. For example, Oromo, more recent, women, and older refugees reported more premigration and resettlement stressors. Oromo refugees and refugee men reported more PTSD symptoms in regression analyses with other factors controlled. Premigration, transit, and resettlement stressor exposure generally was associated with higher PTSD symptom levels. Results underscore the importance of assessing stress exposure comprehensively throughout the refugee experience and caution against overgeneralizing between and within refugee groups.

The purpose of our study was to investigate spiritual and religious changes in the context of life adversities. Specifically, we compared university students (n ¼ 122) who had recently experienced a potentially traumatic event (PTE) and a matched comparison group (n ¼ 122) who had not experienced a recent PTE, in terms of: (1) the amount of actual and selfperceived positive and negative change in religiosity and spirituality; (2) the relations between perceived and actual positive and negative spiritual change; and (3) the relation between change in religiosity and spirituality and change in distress. Although there were small actual and perceived changes in religiosity and spirituality within each group, there were no between-group differences in terms of religious and spiritual change. Thus, changes over time in these life domains are not unique to PTE exposure. As expected, the relations between actual and perceived changes were small, highlighting that perceived and actual change are different constructs. Finally, differences between the two groups in the relations between religious and spiritual change and distress suggested that changes in these life domains may reflect coping efforts in the PTE group. We discuss the counseling and research implications of these results.