The 1994 Special Research Forum on Intra-and Interorganizational Cooperation is dedicated to the proposition that issues of cooperation are fundamental to management success and of increasing importance in today's complex business world. After briefly reviewing the domain of cooperation, we use the content of the articles submitted for this special issue as a sample of current questions and research on cooperation and examine these studies relative to the domain. After introducing the work published here, we identify a set of questions pertinent to future research on cooperation. In a series of military campaigns lasting until 448 B.C., a coalition of more than 20 Greek cities defeated the powerful empire of Persia. The success of the Greeks can be primarily attributed to their construction of the 200 ships used to defeat the Persian navy at Salamis in 480 B.C. The secret of the Greeks' victory was their conceptualizing the ships themselves as projectiles that could ram and sink enemy vessels. To do this successfully, however, the Greek ships had to be speedier and more maneuverable than the ships they were attacking, qualities that required a very high degree of cooperation among the ships' rowers. They had to row in virtually complete unison and be almost perfectly coordinated to outstrip and outmaneuver their opponents. Training and other methods of inducing rhythm and synchronization were important in achieving this high degree of cooperation and coordination among the rowers. Winning the battle, however, also depended upon the accurate coordination of the 200 ships into effective fleet attack formations. Otherwise the Greek ships could have interfered with each other, and chaos would have occurred. Additionally, attaining initial cooperation among the various Greek city states was important in defeating the Persians. This cooperative military achievement was the prerequisite for the subsequent flowering of Greek culture, with all of its contributions to the devel-We thank Pamela Durfus, Martin Gannon, Edward Locke, and Cormac Mac Fhionnlaoich for their comments on an earlier draft of this essay. 7 Academy of Management Journal opment of the philosophical, scientific, political, economic, and educational systems of the Western world (McNeill, 1963). This brief historical account suggests the difficulty, importance, and rewards of cooperation. The Greek's victory over Persia depended upon both intra-and interunit cooperation. Writers and scholars in the field of management have emphasized the critical importance of cooperation and coordination for the achievement of objectives. Fayol (1949), whom many consider the first classical management writer, listed coordination as one of the five critical elements or functions of management. He pointed to the necessity of harmonizing the separate activities and departments of an organization into a single whole. Later, Mayo (1945), and others from the human relations school of management scholarship, put special emphasis on the need for cooperation among the levels of a...
Hanges. and three anonymous reviewers on earlier versions of this manuscript. This field experiment extended research on procedural justice by examining effects of a due-process performance appraisal system on reactions of both employees and managers. Employee-manager pairs were randomly assigned to either a due-process appraisal system or the existing system. Even though due-process employees received lower evaluations, they displayed more favorable reactions: perceived system fairness, appraisal accuracy, attitudes toward the system, evaluations of managers, and intention to remain with the organization. Managers also responded positively, reporting greater ability to resolve work problems, satisfaction with the system, job satisfaction, and less distortion of appraisal results to further their own self-interests."
In this study, we examined the relationship between individualism-collectivism orientations of potential job seekers and their reactions toward alternative human resource management (HRM) practices in the areas of selection, performance appraisal, reward system, career system, and employment security. Using several subdimensions of individualism-collectivism, we found many significant relationships between individualism-collectivism orientations and preferences for alternative human resource management practices that might affect the effectiveness of alternative HRM practices.
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