Adolescence represents a developmental period of marked increase in the development of ethnic-racial identity (ERI) and the importance and influence of friends. Moreover, scores of studies have revealed that ERI and friendships are influential factors in many different academic and psychosocial outcomes for adolescents. However, the development of these relations between ERI, friendships, and academic and psychosocial adjustment do not occur in a vacuum. One

Prior research has examined the incorporation outcomes among unauthorized migrants after implementation of the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA). However, few studies have evaluated how legalization opportunities produce gendered outcomes among the second-generation children of unauthorized immigrants. We examine the association of legalization opportunities provided through IRCA with the years of schooling attained by the sons and daughters of Mexican American immigrants. By distinguishing likely eligibility for one of two programs implemented under IRCA—the Legally Authorized Workers and Special Agricultural Workers programs—we consider whether type of legalization program matters by assessing gender differences in schooling among children of Mexican immigrants. Although legalization provides a substantial educational premium for the children of Mexican immigrants regardless of gender, the size of the legalization premium is smaller, on average, for sons than daughters. The advantage to daughters is especially notable among those with parents eligible for the Special Agricultural Workers program. We consider these findings in the context of theories of immigrant incorporation and intergenerational mobility.

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Ethnic enclaves are spatial concentrations of coethnic immigrants organized by socioeconomic activities. Historically, ethnic enclaves emerged as a result of exclusionary policies and discrimination, but they persist because they serve invaluable functions for immigrants and later generation ethnics. Social scientists have disagreed on the conceptualization, benefits, and potential costs of ethnic enclave formation and enterprise for coethnics. The debate is rooted in disagreements about mobility pathways and measures of immigrant incorporation. Previously, sociologists studied the incorporation trajectories of immigrant groups expecting them to eventually integrate spatially by moving out of ethnic neighborhoods. Recent scholarship extends beyond linear assimilation theories of spatial incorporation to account for shifting settlement patterns of post‐1965 immigrant groups.