Classically (M1) and alternatively activated (M2) macrophages exhibit distinct phenotypes and functions. It has been difficult to dissect macrophage phenotypes in vivo, where a spectrum of macrophage phenotypes exists, and also in vitro, where low or non-selective M2 marker protein expression is observed. To provide a foundation for the complexity of in vivo macrophage phenotypes, we performed a comprehensive analysis of the transcriptional signature of murine M0, M1 and M2 macrophages and identified genes common or exclusive to either subset. We validated by real-time PCR an M1-exclusive pattern of expression for CD38, G-protein coupled receptor 18 (Gpr18) and Formyl peptide receptor 2 (Fpr2) whereas Early growth response protein 2 (Egr2) and c-Myc were M2-exclusive. We further confirmed these data by flow cytometry and show that M1 and M2 macrophages can be distinguished by their relative expression of CD38 and Egr2. Egr2 labeled more M2 macrophages (~70%) than the canonical M2 macrophage marker Arginase-1, which labels 24% of M2 macrophages. Conversely, CD38 labeled most (71%) in vitro M1 macrophages. In vivo, a similar CD38+ population greatly increased after LPS exposure. Overall, this work defines exclusive and common M1 and M2 signatures and provides novel and improved tools to distinguish M1 and M2 murine macrophages.

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Macrophages and their monocyte precursors mediate innate immune responses and can promote a spectrum of phenotypes from pro-inflammatory to pro-resolving. Currently, there are few markers that allow for robust dissection of macrophage phenotype. We recently identified CD38 as a marker of inflammatory macrophages in murine in vitro and in vivo models. However, it is unknown whether CD38 plays a similar marker and/or functional role in human macrophages and inflammatory diseases. Here, we establish that CD38 transcript and protein are robustly induced in human macrophages exposed to LPS (±IFN-γ) inflammatory stimuli, but not with the alternative stimulus, IL-4. Pharmacologic and/or genetic CD38 loss-of-function significantly reduced the secretion of inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-12p40 and glycolytic activity in human primary macrophages. Finally, monocyte analyses in systemic lupus erythematosus patients revealed that, while all monocytes express CD38, high CD38 expression in the non-classical monocyte subpopulation is associated with disease. These data are consistent with an inflammatory marker role for CD38 in human macrophages and monocytes.

Macrophages and microglia play crucial roles during central nervous system development, homeostasis and acute events such as infection or injury. The diverse functions of tissue macrophages and microglia are mirrored by equally diverse phenotypes. A model of inflammatory/M1 versus a resolution phase/M2 macrophages has been widely used. However, the complexity of macrophage function can only be achieved by the existence of varied, plastic and tridimensional macrophage phenotypes. Understanding how tissue macrophages integrate environmental signals via molecular programs to define pathogen/injury inflammatory responses provides an opportunity to better understand the multilayered nature of macrophages, as well as target and modulate cellular programs to control excessive inflammation. This is particularly important in MS and other neuroinflammatory diseases, where chronic inflammatory macrophage and microglial responses may contribute to pathology. Here, we perform a comprehensive review of our current understanding of how molecular pathways modulate tissue macrophage phenotype, covering both classic pathways and the emerging role of microRNAs, receptor-tyrosine kinases and metabolism in macrophage phenotype. In addition, we discuss pathway parallels in microglia, novel markers helpful in the identification of peripheral macrophages versus microglia and markers linked to their phenotype.

Inflammatory M1 spectrum macrophages protect from infection but can cause inflammatory disease and tissue damage, whereas alternatively activated/M2 spectrum macrophages reduce inflammation and promote tissue repair. Modulation of macrophage phenotype may be therapeutically beneficial and requires further understanding of the molecular programs that control macrophage differentiation. A potential mechanism by which macrophages differentiate may be through microRNA (miRNA), which bind to messenger RNA and post-transcriptionally modify gene expression, cell phenotype and function. We hypothesized that the inflammation-associated miRNA, miR-155, would be required for typical development of macrophage inflammatory state. miR-155 was rapidly up-regulated over 100-fold in inflammatory M1(LPS + IFN-γ), but not M2(IL-4), macrophages. Inflammatory genes Inos, Il1b and Tnfa and their corresponding protein or enzymatic products were reduced up to 72% in miR-155 knockout mouse M1(LPS + IFN-γ) macrophages, but miR-155 deficiency did not affect expression of the M2-associated gene Arg1 in M2(IL-4) macrophages. Additionally, a miR-155 oligonucleotide inhibitor efficiently suppressed Inos and Tnfa gene expression in wild-type M1(LPS + IFN-γ) macrophages. Comparative transcriptional profiling of unstimulated and M1(LPS + IFN-γ) macrophages derived from wild-type (WT) and miR-155 knockout (KO) mice revealed that half (approximately 650 genes) of the signature we previously identified in WT M1(LPS + IFN-γ) macrophages was dependent on miR-155. Real-Time PCR of independent datasets confirmed that miR-155 contributed to suppression of its validated mRNA targets Inpp5d, Tspan14, Ptprj and Mafb and induction of Inos, Il1b, Tnfa, Il6 and Il12. Overall, these data indicate that miR-155 plays an essential role in driving the inflammatory phenotype of M1(LPS+ IFN-γ) macrophages.

Alterations in peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22) gene expression are associated with a host of heritable demyelinating peripheral neuropathies, yet the function of the protein remains unknown. PMP22 expression is highest in myelinating Schwann cells of peripheral nerves; however, significant levels of PMP22 mRNAs can be detected in a variety of non-neural tissue, including epithelia. To date, PMP22 protein expression and localization in non-neural tissues have not been studied in detail. In adult rat liver and intestine, and cultured epithelial cells, we detected PMP22-like immunoreactivity associated with markers of the tight junctional complex, including zonula occludens 1 (ZO-1) and occludin. Upon disruption of intercellular contacts, PMP22 was internalized into vesicles that were immunoreactive for both anti-occludin and anti-PMP22 antibodies. Nonionic detergent extraction of cultured epithelial cells did not solubilize PMP22, as the majority of the protein remained in the detergent insoluble fraction, as did ZO-1 and occludin. We also observed the targeting of exogenous myc-tagged PMP22 to apical cell junctions in polarized epithelia and to anti-ZO-1 antibody immunoreactive cell contacts of L fibroblasts. These studies support a role for PMP22 at intercellular junctions of epithelia and may indicate a similar function in myelinating Schwann cells. Furthermore, our findings could provide an explanation for certain phenotypes of PMP22 neuropathy mice that cannot be accounted for by dysmyelination.

In the autoimmune disease multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal model Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE), expansion of pathogenic, myelin-specific Th1 cell populations drives active disease; selectively targeting this process may be the basis for a new therapeutic approach. Previous studies have hinted a role for protein arginine methylation in immune responses, including T cell-mediated autoimmunity and EAE. However, a conclusive role for the Protein Arginine Methyl Transferase (PRMT) enzymes that catalyze these reactions has been lacking. PRMT5 is the main PRMT responsible for symmetric dimethylation of arginine residues of histones and other proteins. PRMT5 drives embryonic development and cancer, but its role in T cells, if any, has not been investigated. Here, we show that PRMT5 is an important modulator of CD4+ T cell expansion. PRMT5 was transiently up-regulated during maximal proliferation of both mouse and human memory Th cells. PRMT5 expression was regulated upstream by the NF-κB pathway, and it promoted IL-2 production and proliferation. Blocking PRMT5 with novel, highly selective small molecule PRMT5 inhibitors severely blunted memory Th expansion, with preferential suppression of Th1 over Th2 cells. In vivo, PRMT5 blockade efficiently suppressed recall T cell responses and reduced inflammation in Delayed Type Hypersensitivity (DTH) and clinical disease in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE) mouse models. These data implicate PRMT5 in regulation of adaptive memory T helper cell responses and suggest PRMT5 inhibitors may be a novel therapeutic approach for T cell-mediated inflammatory disease.

Peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22) is a tetraspan membrane glycoprotein, the misexpression of which is associated with hereditary demyelinating neuropathies. Myelinating Schwann cells (SCs) produce the highest levels of PMP22, yet the function of the protein in peripheral nerve biology is unresolved. To investigate the potential roles of PMP22, we engineered a novel knock-out (Ϫ/Ϫ) mouse line by replacing the first two coding exons of pmp22 with the lacZ reporter. PMP22-deficient mice show strong ␤-galactosidase reactivity in peripheral nerves, cartilage, intestines, and lungs, whereas phenotypically they display the characteristics of tomaculous neuropathy. In the absence of PMP22, myelination of peripheral nerves is delayed, and numerous axon-SC profiles show loose basal lamina, suggesting altered interactions of the glial cells with the extracellular matrix. The levels of ␤4 integrin, a molecule involved in the linkage between SCs and the basal lamina, are severely reduced in nerves of PMP22-deficient mice. During early stages of myelination, PMP22 and ␤4 integrin are coexpressed at the cell surface and can be coimmunoprecipitated together with laminin and ␣6 integrin. In agreement, in clone A colonic carcinoma cells, epitope-tagged PMP22 forms a complex with ␤4 integrin. Together, these data indicate that PMP22 is a binding partner in the integrin/laminin complex and is involved in mediating the interaction of SCs with the extracellular environment.