We investigated the behavior of metallic silver nanoparticles (Ag-NP) in a pilot wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) fed with municipal wastewater. The treatment plant consisted of a nonaerated and an aerated tank and a secondary clarifier. The average hydraulic retention time including the secondary clarifier was 1 day and the sludge age was 14 days. Ag-NP were spiked into the nonaerated tank and samples were collected from the aerated tank and from the effluent. Ag concentrations determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) were in good agreement with predictions based on mass balance considerations. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analyses confirmed that nanoscale Ag particles were sorbed to wastewater biosolids, both in the sludge and in the effluent. Freely dispersed nanoscale Ag particles were only observed in the effluent during the initial pulse spike. X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) measurements indicated that most Ag in the sludge and in the effluent was present as Ag(2)S. Results from batch experiments suggested that Ag-NP transformation to Ag(2)S occured in the nonaerated tank within less than 2 h. Physical and chemical transformations of Ag-NP in WWTPs control the fate, the transport and also the toxicity and the bioavailability of Ag-NP and therefore must be considered in future risk assessments.

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Biocides are included in organic building façade coatings as protection against biological attack by algae and fungi but have the potential to enter the environment via leaching into runoff from wind driven rain. The following field study correlates wind driven rain to runoff and measured the release of several commonly used organic biocides (terbutryn, Irgarol 1051, diuron, isoproturon, OIT, DCOIT) in organic façade coatings from four coating systems. During one year of exposure of a west oriented model house façade in the Zurich, Switzerland area, an average of 62.7 L/m(2), or 6.3% of annual precipitation came off the four façade panels installed as runoff. The ISO method for calculating wind driven rain loads is adapted to predict runoff and can be used in the calculation of emissions in the field. Biocide concentrations tend to be higher in the early lifetime of the coatings and then reach fairly consistent levels later, generally ranging on the order of mg/L or hundreds of μg/L. On the basis of the amount remaining in the film after exposure, the occurrence of transformation products, and the calculated amounts in the leachate, degradation plays a significant role in the overall mass balance.

Urban water management requires further clarification about pollutants in storm water. Little is known about the release of organic additives used in construction materials and the impact of these compounds to storm water runoff. We investigated sources and pathways of additives used in construction materials, i.e., biocides in facades' render as well as root protection products in bitumen membranes for rooftops. Under wet-weather conditions, the concentrations of diuron, terbutryn, carbendazim, irgarol 1051 (all from facades) and mecoprop in storm water and receiving water exceeded the predicted no-effect concentrations values and the Swiss water quality standard of 0.1 microg/L. Under laboratory conditions maximum concentrations of additives were in the range of a few milligrams and a few hundred micrograms per litre in runoff of facades and bitumen membranes. Runoff from aged materials shows approximately one to two orders of magnitude lower concentrations. Concentrations decreased also during individual runoff events. In storm water and receiving water the occurrence of additives did not follow the typical first flush model. This can be explained by the release lasting over the time of rainfall and the complexity of the drainage network. Beside the amounts used, the impact of construction materials containing hazardous additives on water quality is related clearly to the age of the buildings and the separated sewer network. The development of improved products regarding release of hazardous additives is the most efficient way of reducing the pollutant load from construction materials in storm water runoff.

Bench-scale, semibatch experiments were performed to examine physical-chemical constraints on ozone (O3) absorption and micropollutant oxidation during ozonation of source-separated hydrolyzed urine and the concentrate and diluate streams produced via electrodialysis of hydrolyzed urine. O3 consumption by each matrix was found to occur within a fast pseudo-first-order kinetic regime. Critical constraints on micropollutant oxidation were found through mass transfer modeling to be (i) micropollutant diffusion from the bulk solution into the gas-liquid interfacial film for compounds recalcitrant toward O3 (i.e., k"O3,app < or = 10(3) M(-1) s(-1)), and (ii) aqueous-phase mixing for compounds highly reactive toward O3 (i.e., k"O3,app > 10(3) M(-1) s(-1)). Homogeneous chemical reaction modeling indicated that aqueous reaction chemistry is significantly influenced bythe degree to which incidentally produced hydroxyl radicals are consumed by NH3 in each matrix, in terms of (a) micropollutant oxidation efficiencies, and (b) potential yields of oxidation byproducts. On the basis of the experimental data reported here, per capita energy requirements were estimated for treatment of source-separated urine via (1) ozonation, (2) ozonation with postelectrodialysis, and (3) electrodialysis with postozonation. These estimates indicate that scenario (1) would likely be less energy efficient than ozonation of municipal wastewater effluent in achieving equivalent reductions in urine-derived micropollutant loads, whereas scenarios (2 and 3) could be more efficient than equivalent centralized wastewater treatment strategies in achieving equivalent levels of urine-derived nutrient and micropollutant attenuation. Furthermore, experimental and model data suggest that urine ozonation efficiency may be substantially improved by optimizing aqueous-phase mixing and specific gas-liquid interfacial area.

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Pilot tests were performed with a process combination of electrodialysis and ozonation for the removal of micropollutants and the concentration of nutrients in urine. In continuous and batch experiments, maximum concentration factors up to 3.5 and 4.1 were obtained, respectively. The desalination capacity did not decrease significantly during continuous operation periods of several weeks. Membrane cleaning after 195 days resulted in approximately 35% increase in desalination rate. The Yeast Estrogen Screen (YES), a bioassay that selectively detects oestrogenic compounds, confirmed that about 90% of the oestrogenic activity was removed by electrodialysis. HPLC analysis showed that ibuprofen was removed to a high extent, while other micropollutants were below the detection limit. In view of the fact that ibuprofen is among the most rapidly transported micropollutants in electrodialysis processes, this result indicates that electrodialysis provides an effective barrier for micropollutants. Standardised plant growth tests were performed in the field with the salt solution resulting from the treatment by electrodialysis and subsequent ozonation. The results show that the plant height is comparable to synthetic fertilisers, but the crop yield is slightly lower. The latter is probably caused by volatilisation losses during field application, which can be prevented by improved application technologies.