Since its development in the late 1980s, the Male Role Norms Inventory (MRNI) and related forms have been used in 91 studies to examine masculinity ideologies through male role norms in the United States and other countries with over 30,000 participants. The study of male role norms and masculinity ideologies has remained a prominent area of study in the psychology of men and masculinities since at least 1995. Since the last formal review of the MRNI in 2007, 2 new forms of the MRNI have been developed, including short form and adolescent versions, and various forms of the measure have been used in at least 70 additional studies. After describing the development and psychometric properties of the MRNI, this article reports the results of a content analysis of all studies on male role norms using the MRNI in all forms, describing sample demographics, methodologies, topics, and findings. Results of the present study show the MRNI has been used to investigate men's psychological, physical, and sexual health, romantic relationships, quality of friendships, and vocational decisions. The MRNI has also been utilized in examining negative attitudes toward People of Color and sexual minority and gender nonconforming men. This content analysis also highlights understudied areas such as body image, sports, religiousness/spirituality, and fatherhood. Finally, it calls for more representative samples in terms of ethnic, racial, sexual orientation, and gender diversity. Implications for clinical applications of previous findings are discussed and recommendations for further investigating male role norms and masculinity ideologies research are presented.

The Fathers' Expectations about Sons' Masculinity Scale (FEASMS) assesses men's recollections of fathers' expectations for their masculinity, including expectations that sons conform to traditional masculine norms and the overall rigidity of these expectations. Participants were 651 communitydwelling and college men, from which a random sample of 300 was selected for an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of the FEASMS. The EFA resulted in a 49-item 5-factor scale with simple structure, and moderate-to-strong factor loadings and factor intercorrelations. A shorter form was created by taking 4 of the highest loading items from each factor while ensuring coverage of the construct. Data from the remaining 351 participants were used to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), which found that the underlying structure for the Fathers' Expectations about Sons' Masculinity Scale (Short Form; FEASMS-SF) items retained the 5-factor dimensionality of the original scale. Common factors, hierarchical, and bifactor models were compared, with the results indicating that the bifactor model best fit the data. Model-based reliability estimates tentatively support the use of the raw FEASMS-SF total score to represent the general construct of fathers' expectations about sons' masculinity, and the raw score of the Importance of Sex subscale to represent that specific norm. However, the other 4 of the 5 group factors accounted for less reliable variance and are best assessed using latent variables. The convergent construct validity of the FEASMS-SF general factor was supported by its associations with other latent variables in its nomological network. Results are discussed in terms of future research directions and implications for practice and prevention.

Objective:The purpose of this study was to assess the direct and indirect relationships between the endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology (TMI) and self-reported health status through potential mediating variables of expectations of benefits from health risk behaviors and actual health risk behaviors. In addition, the objective was to test the moderating effect of gender identity, broadly defined (including cisgender and transgender men and women and nonbinary persons). Method: Participants (N ϭ 1233; 34.3% transgender) participated in an online survey, responding to measures of TMI, expectations of benefits, health behaviors, health status, and demographics. Data were analyzed using conditional process modeling. Results: TMI was positively and directly associated with general health status for self-identified men (regardless of their sex assigned at birth), and with mental health for both men and women, but was not associated with physical health for persons of any gender identity. TMI was positively and directly associated with expectations of benefits for both men and women. Expectations of benefits from engaging in health risk behaviors was positively associated with health risk behaviors, and health risk behaviors had a large negative association with health status, for people of all gender identities. Conclusions: TMI may be a general and mental health protective factor for self-identified men, and a mental health protective factor for women, regardless of assigned sex at birth.

The present study examined men's perceptions of their father's general expectations of them when they were growing up and what the effects have been on their lives. Previous research suggests fathers influence sons' development, but few studies have examined sons' perceptions qualitatively. Participants were 252 demographically diverse community-dwelling and college men (ages 18-78; 36.5% men of color). Descriptive coding and content analysis were used to analyze written open-ended responses from an online questionnaire. Results suggest that fathers' expectations for their sons are quite influential. Common topics of expectations reported by participants included Academics, Work Ethic, Athletics, Family, Career, Independence and Self-Reliance, Authenticity, and Happiness. Sons who perceived their fathers as supporting their authentic selves without having unattainable expectations reported positive impacts. Rigid and ill-fitting expectations may have negative effects. These findings suggest fathers are an important influence on their sons with positive or negative impacts on their well-being, depending on how well the expectations fit their sons.

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