Loss-of-function GRN mutations result in progranulin haploinsufficiency and are a common cause of frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) are emerging as a promising therapeutic modality for neurological diseases, but ASO-based strategies for increasing target protein levels are still relatively limited. Here, we report the use of ASOs to increase progranulin protein levels by targeting the miR-29b binding site in the 3′ UTR of the GRN mRNA, resulting in increased translation.

Background GRN mutations cause frontotemporal dementia (FTD) due to haploinsufficiency of progranulin. Several microRNAs (miRs), including miR‐29b, have been reported to negatively regulate progranulin protein levels. Here, we tested if antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) – which are versatile modulators of target mRNA/protein levels – can be used to increase progranulin levels by sterically blocking the miR‐29b binding site.MethodWe designed 48 ASOs targeting the miR‐29b binding site in the 3’ UTR of the human GRN mRNA. We treated H4 neuroglioma cells and iPSC‐derived neurons with these ASOs and subsequently measured progranulin protein levels by western blot and ELISA. We performed further studies to determine the mechanism of action of these ASOs using ribosomal profiling, metabolic labeling, and FRET assays.ResultsWe identified 16 ASOs that increased progranulin protein levels in a dose‐dependent manner. Ribosomal profiling experiments revealed that cells treated with ASOs had marked enrichment in GRN mRNA in heavy polyribosome fractions, compared to cells treated with a scrambled control ASO, suggesting that the ASOs increase the rate of progranulin translation. Consistent with this, ASO treatment resulted in increased levels of newly synthesized progranulin protein. FRET‐based assays showed that ASOs can effectively compete miR‐29b from its binding site in the GRN 3’ UTR RNA under in vitro conditions.ConclusionsTogether, our results demonstrate that ASOs can be used to effectively increase target protein levels by partially blocking miR binding sites. This strategy may be therapeutically feasible for progranulin‐deficient FTD as well as other conditions of haploinsufficiency.

Heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in the progranulin gene (GRN) are a major cause of frontotemporal dementia due to progranulin haploinsufficiency; complete deficiency of progranulin causes neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. Several progranulin-deficient mouse models have been generated, including both knockout mice and knockin mice harboring a common patient mutation (R493X). However, theGrnR493Xmouse model has not been characterized completely. Additionally, while homozygous Grn mice have been extensively studied, data from heterozygous mice is still limited. Here, we performed more in depth characterization of heterozygous and homozygousGrnR493Xknockin mice, which includes neuropathological assessment, behavioral studies, and analysis of fluid biomarkers. In the brains of homozygousGrnR493X, we found increased expression of lysosomal genes, markers of microgliosis and astrogliosis, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and complement factors. HeterozygousGrnR493Xmice exhibited more limited increases in lysosomal and inflammatory gene expression. Behavioral studies found social and emotional deficits inGrnR493Xmice that mirror those observed in Grn mouse models, as well as impairment in memory and executive function. Overall, theGrnR493Xknockin mouse model closely phenocopies Grn knockout models. Lastly, in contrast to homozygous knockin mice, heterozygousGrnR493Xmice do not have elevated levels of fluid biomarkers previously identified in humans, including neurofilament light chain (NfL) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in both plasma and CSF. These results may help to inform pre-clinical studies that use this and otherGrnmouse models.

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Microwave irradiation of O-phenyloximes triggers N–O homolysis and 1,5-hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), resulting in formal γ-C–H functionalization of ketones after trapping of the radical intermediate and in situ imine hydrolysis. The Lewis acid InCl3·H2O facilitated HAT, enabling functionalization of benzylic and nonbenzylic secondary carbon atoms. Functionalization of primary carbons was feasible but afforded low yields, requiring ClCH2CO2H instead of InCl3·H2O as an additive. C–O and C–C bond formation could both be accomplished by this method.