Effective host defense requires a robust, yet self-limited response to pathogens. A poorly calibrated response can lead to either bacterial dissemination due to insufficient inflammation or to organ injury due to excessive inflammation. Recent evidence suggests that the cholinergic anti-inflammatory reflex helps calibrate the immune response. However, the influence of peripheral noradrenergic neurons, which are primarily sympathetic neurons, in regulating immunity remains incompletely characterized. Using a model of 6-OHDA mediated noradrenergic nerve ablation, we show that elimination of noradrenergic neurons improves survival during K. pneumoniae peritonitis (67% vs. 23%, p<0.005) in mice. The survival benefit results from enhanced monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP-1) dependent monocyte recruitment and a subsequent decrease in bacterial loads. Splenectomy eliminated both the survival benefit of 6-OHDA and monocyte recruitment, suggesting that monocytes recruited to the peritoneum originate in the spleen. These results suggest that noradrenergic neurons regulate the immune response through two pathways. First, sympathetic nerve derived norepinephrine (NE) directly restrains MCP-1 production by peritoneal macrophages during infection. Second, NE derived from the vagally innervated splenic nerve regulates splenic monocyte egress. Removal of these two modulators of the immune response enhances antibacterial immunity and improves survival. These results may have implications for how states of catecholamine excess influence the host response to bacterial infections.

BackgroundStress of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) leading to activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR) and alveolar epithelial cell (AEC) apoptosis may play a role in the pathogenesis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Our objectives were to determine whether circulating caspase-cleaved cytokeratin-18 (cCK-18) is a marker of AEC apoptosis in IPF, define the relationship of cCK-18 with activation of the UPR, and assess its utility as a diagnostic biomarker.MethodsIPF and normal lung tissues were stained with the antibody (M30) that specifically binds cCK-18. The relationship between markers of the UPR and cCK-18 was determined in AECs exposed in vitro to thapsigargin to induce ER stress. cCK-18 was measured in serum from subjects with IPF, hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP), nonspecific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP), and control subjects.ResultscCK-18 immunoreactivity was present in AECs of IPF lung, but not in control subjects. Markers of the UPR (phosphorylated IRE-1α and spliced XBP-1) were more highly expressed in IPF type II AECs than in normal type II AECs. Phosphorylated IRE-1α and cCK-18 increased following thapsigargin-induced ER stress. Serum cCK-18 level distinguished IPF from diseased and control subjects. Serum cCK-18 was not associated with disease severity or outcome.ConclusionscCK-18 may be a marker of AEC apoptosis and UPR activation in patients with IPF. Circulating levels of cCK-18 are increased in patients with IPF and cCK-18 may be a useful diagnostic biomarker.

Prior work established that a deficiency in the cysteine protease dipeptidyl peptidase I (DPPI) improves survival following polymicrobial septic peritonitis. To test whether DPPI regulates survival from severe lung infections, DPPI −/− mice were studied in a Klebsiella pneumonia lung infection model, finding that survival in DPPI −/− mice is significantly better than in DPPI +/+ mice 8 d after infection. DPPI −/− mice have significantly fewer bacteria in the lung than infected DPPI +/+ mice, but no difference in lung histopathology, lung injury, or cytokine levels. To explore mechanisms of enhanced bacterial clearance in DPPI −/− mice, we examined the status of pulmonary collectins, finding that levels of surfactant protein D, but not of surfactant protein A, are higher in DPPI −/− than in DPPI +/+ BAL fluid, and that DPPI −/− BAL fluid aggregate bacteria more effectively than control BAL fluid. Sequencing of the amino terminus of surfactant protein D revealed two or eight additional amino acids in surfactant protein D isolated from DPPI −/− mice, suggesting processing by DPPI. These results establish that DPPI is a major determinant of survival following Klebsiella pneumoniae lung infection and suggest that the survival disadvantage in DPPI +/+ mice is in part due to processing of surfactant protein D by DPPI.

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