The NF-kappa B-like Relish gene is complex, with four transcripts that are all located within an intron of the Nmdmc gene. Using deletion mutants, we show that Relish is specifically required for the induction of the humoral immune response, including both antibacterial and antifungal peptides. As a result, the Relish mutants are very sensitive to infection. A single cell of E. cloacae is sufficient to kill a mutant fly, and the mutants show increased susceptibility to fungal infection. In contrast, the blood cell population, the hematopoietic organs, and the phagocytic, encapsulation, and melanization responses are normal. Our results illustrate the importance of the humoral response in Drosophila immunity and demonstrate that Relish plays a key role in this response.

Peptidoglycans from bacterial cell walls trigger immune responses in insects and mammals. A peptidoglycan recognition protein, PGRP, has been cloned from moths as well as vertebrates and has been shown to participate in peptidoglycan-mediated activation of prophenoloxidase in the silk moth. Here we report that Drosophila expresses 12 PGRP genes, distributed in 8 chromosomal loci on the 3 major chromosomes. By analyzing cDNA clones and genomic databases, we grouped them into two classes: PGRP-SA, SB1, SB2, SC1A, SC1B, SC2, and SD, with short transcripts and short 5-untranslated regions; and PGRP-LA, LB, LC, LD, and LE, with long transcripts and long 5-untranslated regions. The predicted structures indicate that the first group encodes extracellular proteins and the second group, intracellular and membrane-spanning proteins. Most PGRP genes are expressed in all postembryonic stages. Peptidoglycan injections strongly induce five of the genes. Transcripts from the different PGRP genes were found in immune competent organs such as fat body, gut, and hemocytes. We demonstrate that at least PGRP-SA and SC1B can bind peptidoglycan, and a function in immunity is likely for this family.

SummaryThe tomato Pto kinase confers resistance to the causative agent of bacterial speck disease, Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato, by recognizing the pathogen effector proteins AvrPto or AvrPtoB. Pto-mediated resistance requires multiple signal transduction pathways and has been shown to activate many defense responses including an oxidative burst, rapid changes in the expression of over 400 genes, and localized cell death. We have tested the role in Pto-mediated resistance in tomato of a set of 21 genes from other species known to be involved in defense-related signaling. Expression of each gene was suppressed by virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) and the effect on disease symptoms and bacterial growth during the tomato±Pseudo-monas incompatible interaction was determined. We found that Pto-mediated resistance was compromised by silencing of genes encoding two mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase kinases, MEK1 and MEK2, two MAP kinases, NTF6 and wound-induced protein kinase (WIPK), a key regulator of systemic acquired resistance (SAR), NPR1, and two transcription factors, TGA1a and TGA2.2. A lesser impact on Pto-mediated resistance was observed in plants silenced for RAR1 and COI1. The identi®cation of nine genes that play a role in resistance to bacterial speck disease both advances our knowledge of Pto signal transduction and demonstrates the conservation of many defense signaling components among diverse plant species.

SummaryTomato (Solanum lycopersicum) Cf resistance genes confer hypersensitive response (HR)-associated resistance to strains of the pathogenic fungus Cladosporium fulvum that express the matching avirulence (Avr) gene. Previously, we identified an Avr4-responsive tomato (ART) gene that is required for Cf-4/Avr4-induced HR in Nicotiana benthamiana as demonstrated by virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS). The gene encodes a CC-NB-LRR type resistance (R) protein analogue that we have designated NRC1 (NB-LRR protein required for HR-associated cell death 1). Here we describe that knock-down of NRC1 in tomato not only affects the Cf-4/Avr4-induced HR but also compromises Cf-4-mediated resistance to C. fulvum. In addition, VIGS using NRC1 in N. benthamiana revealed that this protein is also required for the HR induced by the R proteins Cf-9, LeEix, Pto, Rx and Mi. Transient expression of NRC1 D481V , which encodes a constitutively active NRC1 mutant protein, triggers an elicitor-independent HR. Subsequently, we transiently expressed this auto-activating protein in N. benthamiana silenced for genes known to be involved in HR signalling, thereby allowing NRC1 to be positioned in an HR signalling pathway. We found that NRC1 requires RAR1 and SGT1 to be functional, whereas it does not require NDR1 and EDS1. As the Cf-4 protein requires EDS1 for its function, we hypothesize that NRC1 functions downstream of EDS1. We also found that NRC1 acts upstream of a MAP kinase pathway. We conclude that Cf-mediated resistance signalling requires a downstream NB-LRR protein that also functions in cell death signalling pathways triggered by other R proteins.

We have identified a previously undescribed transmembrane protein, Hemese, from Drosophila melanogaster blood cells (hemocytes), by using a monoclonal pan-hemocyte antibody. Heavy glycosylation is suggested by the heterogeneous size distribution, ranging between 37 and 70 kDa. Hemese expression is restricted to the cell surfaces of hemocytes of all classes, and to the hematopoietic organs. The sequence of the corresponding gene, Hemese (He), predicts a glycophorin-like protein of 15 kDa, excluding an N-terminal signal peptide, with a single hydrophobic transmembrane region. The extracellular region consists mainly of Ser͞Thr-rich sequence of low complexity, with several potential O-glycosylation sites. Hemese contains phosphotyrosine and the cytoplasmic region has potential phosphorylation sites, suggesting an involvement in signal transduction. Depletion of Hemese by RNA interference has no obvious effect under normal conditions, but the cellular response to parasitic wasps is much enhanced. This finding indicates that Hemese plays a modulatory role in the activation or recruitment of the hemocytes.

Bacterial speck disease in tomato is caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato. Resistance to this disease is conferred by the host Pto kinase, which recognizes P. s. pv. tomato strains that express the effector AvrPto. We report here that an AvrPto‐dependent Pto‐interacting protein 3 (Adi3) is a member of the AGC family of protein kinases. In mammals, AGC kinases are regulated by 3‐phosphoinositide‐dependent protein kinase‐1 (Pdk1). We characterized tomato Pdk1 and showed that Pdk1 and Pto phosphorylate Adi3. Gene silencing of Adi3 in tomato causes MAPKKKα‐dependent formation of necrotic lesions. Use of a chemical inhibitor of Pdk1, OSU‐03012, also implicates Pdk1 and Adi3 in plant cell death regulation. Adi3 thus appears to function analogously to the mammalian AGC kinase protein kinase B/Akt by negatively regulating cell death via Pdk1 phosphorylation. We speculate that the negative regulatory function of Adi3 might be subverted by interaction with Pto/AvrPto, leading to host cell death that is associated with pathogen attack.

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SUMMARYThe perception of pathogen-derived elicitors by plants has been suggested to involve phosphatidylinositolspecific phospholipase-C (PI-PLC) signalling. Here we show that PLC isoforms are required for the hypersensitive response (HR) and disease resistance. We characterised the tomato [Solanum lycopersicum (Sl)] PLC gene family. Six Sl PLC-encoding cDNAs were isolated and their expression in response to infection with the pathogenic fungus Cladosporium fulvum was studied. We found significant regulation at the transcriptional level of the various SlPLCs, and SlPLC4 and SlPLC6 showed distinct expression patterns in C. fulvum-resistant Cf-4 tomato. We produced the encoded proteins in Escherichia coli and found that both genes encode catalytically active PI-PLCs. To test the requirement of these Sl PLCs for full Cf-4-mediated recognition of the effector Avr4, we knocked down the expression of the encoding genes by virus-induced gene silencing. Silencing of SlPLC4 impaired the Avr4/Cf-4-induced HR and resulted in increased colonisation of Cf-4 plants by C. fulvum expressing Avr4. Furthermore, expression of the gene in Nicotiana benthamiana enhanced the Avr4/Cf-4-induced HR. Silencing of SlPLC6 did not affect HR, whereas it caused increased colonisation of Cf-4 plants by the fungus. Interestingly, Sl PLC6, but not Sl PLC4, was also required for resistance to Verticillium dahliae, mediated by the transmembrane Ve1 resistance protein, and to Pseudomonas syringae, mediated by the intracellular Pto/Prf resistance protein couple. We conclude that there is a differential requirement of PLC isoforms for the plant immune response and that Sl PLC4 is specifically required for Cf-4 function, while Sl PLC6 may be a more general component of resistance protein signalling.