Spread of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates is a worldwide problem. Molecular typing is a useful tool to understand MRSA epidemiology. Herein, we determined vancomycin-resistant, SCCmec and spa types among MRSA isolates recovered from healthcare and community-acquired infections in Kerman, Iran. A total of 170 S. aureus isolates were collected from different patients who were admitted to affiliated hospitals of Kerman University of Medical science. MRSA and vancomycin-resistant S. aureus (VRSA) isolates were detected by phenotypic methods. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique was used for detection of mecA, vanA and vanB genes. Staphylococcal cassette chromosomemec (SCCmec) and spa typing were used for molecular typing of among MRSA isolates. Overall, 53% of isolates were considered as MRSA. Two MRSA isolates were resistant to vancomycin and vanA was detected in only one of VRSA isolates. SCCmec type III belonged to spa types t030 and t459 which they were the dominant spa types among community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) and healthcare-acquired MRSA (HA-MRSA) isolates. Our findings showed that the SCCmec type I and III spread from hospital settings to community, although the SCCmec type IV spread from community to healthcare systems. We have also reported VRSA isolates from hospitalized patients, therefore, appropriate policies should be enforced in order to prevent the spread of antibiotic resistance isolates in hospitals settings.

IntroductionThe emergence and spread of Klebsiella pneumoniae strains resistant to multiple antimicrobial agents are considered as a serious challenge for nosocomial infections.Materials and methodsIn this study, 175 nonrepetitive clinical isolates of K. pneumoniae were collected from hospitalized patients in Kerman, Iran. Extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs), AmpC, and carbapenemase-producing isolates were recognized by phenotypic methods. The resistance genes including efflux pumps oqxA/oqxB, 16S rRNA methylase, ESBL, AmpC, and carbapenemase were detected by PCR-sequencing method. Molecular typing was performed by enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus-PCR and multilocus sequence typing methods among blaNDM-positive isolates.ResultsThirty-seven (21.14%) isolates along with sequence types (STs): ST43, ST268, ST340, ST392, ST147, and ST16 were harbored blaNDM. ST43 in 2015 and ST268 during 2016–2017 were the most frequent STs among New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase (NDM)-positive isolates. We found the distribution of some isolates with blaNDM, blaCTX-M, blaSHV, blaOXA, blaTEM, blaCMY, rmtC, and oqxA/oqxB. Enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus-PCR represented seven clusters (A–G) plus four singletons among NDM-positive isolates. This study provides the first report of blaNDM-1-positve K. pneumoniae along with ST268 as well as the spread of nosocomial infections with six different STs harboring blaNDM-1 and other resistance genes in hospital settings especially neonatal intensive care unit.ConclusionThe dissemination of various clones of NDM-producing K. pneumoniae can contribute to increase the rate of their spread in health care settings. Therefore, molecular typing and detection of resistance genes have an important role in preventing and controlling infection by limiting the dissemination of multidrug-resistant isolates.

Dissemination of carbapenemase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae along with 16S rRNA methyltransferase (16S-RMTase) has been caused as a great concern for healthcare settings. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of resistance genes among K. pneumoniae isolates. During October 2015 to February 2016, 30 non-duplicative K. pneumoniae strains were isolated from clinical specimens in a burn center in Kerman, Iran. Antibiotic susceptibility tests of isolates, carbapenemase, extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) and AmpC beta-lactamase-producing isolates were determined by phenotypic methods. The beta-lactamase, oqxA/B efflux pumps, qnr A, B, S, 16S-RMTase (rmt A, B, and C), and mcr-1 resistance genes were determined by PCR. Enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC)-PCR was used for molecular typing. According to our findings, tigecycline has been shown the most active agent against K. pneumoniae isolates. Antibiotic resistance genes, bla, bla, bla, bla, bla, bla, bla, bla, bla, bla, rmtC, qnrB, qnrS, oqxA, and oqxB, were detected in 11 (36.7%), 13 (43.3%), 11 (36.6%), 5 (16.6%), 9 (30%), 1 (3.3%), 1 (3.3%), 1 (3.3%), 1 (3.3%), 2 (6.7%), 1 (3.3%), 9 (30%), 2 (6.7%), 18 (60%), and 13 (43.3%) of isolates, respectively. The bla with rmtC was simultaneously observed in one isolate. ERIC-PCR results revealed 25 distinct patterns in eight clusters (A-H) and five singletons. This study highlights the high prevalence of bla and emergence of rmtC among carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae. The resistance genes are often co-located on the conjugative plasmids, so it might be the reason of the rapid spread of them. The prevalence of multidrug-resistant K. pneumoniae isolates limits the available treatment options and presents tremendous challenges to public health.

Introduction. New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase (NDM)-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae has become a serious global health concern. Hypothesis/Gap Statement. Due to the high genetic diversity among NDM-positive K. pneumoniae, we need further surveillance and studies to better understand the relationships between them. In addition, the coexistence of several plasmid replicon types in NDM-positive K. pneumoniae may affect the copy number of bla NDM, the MIC level to antibiotics, as well as increasing the chance of horizontal gene transfer. Aim. The aim of this study was to determine incompatible plasmid groups and copy numbers of bla NDM, and to investigate the genetic relationship of 37 NDM-positive K. pneumoniae in Kerman, Iran. Methodology. The bla NDM-1 gene was detected and confirmed by PCR-sequencing. The plasmid replicon types were determined by PCR-based replicon typing (PBRT) and the copy number of bla NDM-1 was determined by quantitaive real time-PCR (qPCR). Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)-PCR typing was used to detect genetic relationships between the strains. Results. In this study, 10 different replicon types, including Frep [n=25 (67.5 %)], FIIAs [n=11 (29.7 %)], FIA [n=5 (13.5 %)], FIB [n=3 (8.1 %)], I1-Iγ [n=2 (5.4 %)], L/M [n=7 (18.9 %)], A/C [n=7 (18.9 %)], Y [n=3 (8.1 %)], P [n=1 (2.7 %)] and FIC [n=1 (2.7 %)] were reported. The copy numbers of the bla NDM-1 gene varied from 30.00 to 5.0×106 and no statistically significant correlation was observed between a rise of the MIC to imipenem and the copy numbers of bla NDM-1 (P>0.05). According to RAPD typing results, 35 strains were divided into five clusters, while two strains were non-typeable. Conclusion. The spread of NDM-1-producing K. pneumoniae strains that carry several plasmid replicon types increases the chance of horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes in hospital settings. In this study, 10 different replicon types were identified. We could not find any relationship between the increase of MIC levels to imipenem and the copy numbers of bla NDM-1. Therefore, due to the identification of different replicon types in this study, the type and genetic characteristics of bla NDM-1-carrying plasmids, and other factors such as antibiotic selective pressure, probably affect the copy number of bla NDM-1 and change the MIC level to imipenem.