Language processing requires the combination of compatible (auditory-vocal and visual-manual) or incompatible (auditory-manual and visual-vocal) sensory-motor modalities, and switching between these sensory-motor modality combinations is very common in every-day life. Sensory-motor modality compatibility is defined as the similarity of stimulus modality and the modality of response-related sensory consequences. We investigated the influence of sensory-motor modality compatibility during performing language-related cognitive operations on different linguistic levels. More specifically, we used a variant of the task-switching paradigm, in which participants had to switch between compatible or between incompatible sensory-motor modality combinations during a verbal semantic categorization (Experiment 1) or during a word-form decision (Experiment 2). The data show higher switch costs (i.e., higher reaction times and error rates in switch trials compared to repetition trials) in incompatible sensory-motor modality combinations than in compatible sensory-motor modality combinations. This was true for every language-related cognitive operation, regardless of the individual linguistic level. Taken together, the present study demonstrates that sensory-motor modality compatibility plays an important role in modality switching during language processing.
Metacognition is usually defined as "thinking about thinking" and it refers to knowledge about factors that influence task performance and knowledge about strategies. Moreover, it includes metacognitive regulation processes such as planning and monitoring task performance as well as evaluating the efficiency of these planning and monitoring processes.Good metacognitive abilities are essential for academic success and good metacognitive skills support a number of other cognitive processes that are necessary to perform a specific task. Thus, training of metacognitive skills has become an important element of different training programs in various domains. In the present chapter we will give an overview of recent advancements in the knowledge about metacognitive training in the context of mathematical skills, reading abilities, and regarding executive function training. Research from all three domains reveals promising results, indicating that the integration of metacognitive training into more conventional training programs leads to greater improvements than conventional training alone. Metacognitive training is effective for many different age groups, via different methods, and in different contexts. At the same time, however, there are still a number of open questions like, for example, the question of interindividual differences or the question of long-term effects, indicating that the field of metacognitive training research is likely to keep in the future.
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