The reversible regulation of protein tyrosine phosphatase is an important mechanism in processing signal transduction and regulating cell cycle. Recent reports have shown that the active site cysteine residue, Cys215, can be reversibly oxidized to a cysteine sulfenic derivative (Denu and Tanner, 1998; Lee et al., 1998). We propose an additional modification that has implications for the in vivo regulation of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B, EC 3.1.3.48): the glutathionylation of Cys215 to a mixed protein disulfide. Treatment of PTP1B with diamide and reduced glutathione or with only glutathione disulfide (GSSG) results in a modification detected by mass spectrometry in which the cysteine residues are oxidized to mixed disulfides with glutathione. The activity is recovered by the addition of dithiothreitol, presumably by reducing the cysteine disulfides. In addition, inactivated PTP1B is reactivated enzymatically by the glutathione-specific dethiolase enzyme thioltransferase (glutaredoxin), indicating that the inactivated form of the phosphatase is a glutathionyl mixed disulfide. The cysteine sulfenic derivative can easily oxidize to its irreversible sulfinic and sulfonic forms and hinder the regulatory efficiency if it is not converted to a more stable and reversible end product such as a glutathionyl derivative. Glutathionylation of the cysteine sulfenic derivative will prevent the enzyme from further oxidation to its irreversible forms, and constitutes an efficient regulatory mechanism.

Vacuolar-type ATPases (V-ATPases) 1 are complex, heteromultimeric proteins consisting of a peripheral, catalytic V 1 complex and a membrane bound, ion translocating V o complex.

Part of the inflammatory response in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the upregulation of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) resulting in increased NO production. NO contributes to cell signaling by inducing posttranslational protein modifications. Under pathological conditions there is a shift from the signal transducing actions to the formation of protein tyrosine nitration by secondary products like peroxynitrite and nitrogen dioxide. We identified amyloid β (Aβ) as an NO target, which is nitrated at tyrosine 10 (3NTyr(10)-Aβ). Nitration of Aβ accelerated its aggregation and was detected in the core of Aβ plaques of APP/PS1 mice and AD brains. NOS2 deficiency or oral treatment with the NOS2 inhibitor L-NIL strongly decreased 3NTyr(10)-Aβ, overall Aβ deposition and cognitive dysfunction in APP/PS1 mice. Further, injection of 3NTyr(10)-Aβ into the brain of young APP/PS1 mice induced β-amyloidosis. This suggests a disease modifying role for NOS2 in AD and therefore represents a potential therapeutic target.

Kaposi’s sarcoma associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is the human oncovirus which causes Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS), a highly vascularised tumour originating from lymphatic endothelial cells. Amongst others, the dimeric complex formed by the KSHV virion envelope glycoproteins H and L (gH/gL) is required for entry of herpesviruses into the host cell. We show that the Ephrin receptor tyrosine kinase A2 (EphA2) is a cellular receptor for KSHV gH/gL. EphA2 co-precipitated with both gH/gL and KSHV virions. KSHV infection rates were increased upon over-expression of EphA2. In contrast, antibodies against EphA2 and siRNAs directed against EphA2 inhibited KSHV infection of lymphatic endothelial cells. Pretreatment of KSHV virions with soluble EphA2 resulted in a dose-dependent inhibition of KSHV infection by up to 90%. Similarly, pretreating cells with the soluble EphA2 ligand EphrinA4 but not with EphA2 itself impaired KSHV infection. Notably, deletion of the EphA2 gene essentially abolished KSHV infection of murine vascular endothelial cells. Binding of gH/gL to EphA2 triggered EphA2 phosphorylation and endocytosis, a major pathway of KSHV entry. Quantitative RT-PCR and situ histochemistry revealed a close correlation between KSHV infection and EphA2 expression both in cultured cells derived from KS or lymphatic endothelium and in KS specimens, respectively. Taken together, these results identify EphA2, a tyrosine kinase with known functions in neo-vascularisation and oncogenesis, as receptor for KSHV gH/gL and implicate an important role for EphA2 in KSHV infection especially of endothelial cells and in KS.

Autoimmune diseases, such as psoriasis and arthritis, show a patchy distribution of inflammation despite systemic dysregulation of adaptive immunity. Thus, additional tissue-derived signals, such as danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), are indispensable for manifestation of local inflammation. S100A8/S100A9 complexes are the most abundant DAMPs in many autoimmune diseases. However, regulatory mechanisms locally restricting DAMP activities are barely understood. We now unravel for the first time, to our knowledge, a mechanism of autoinhibition in mice and humans restricting S100-DAMP activity to local sites of inflammation. Combining protease degradation, pull-down assays, mass spectrometry, and targeted mutations, we identified specific peptide sequences within the second calcium-binding EF-hands triggering TLR4/MD2-dependent inflammation. These binding sites are free when S100A8/S100A9 heterodimers are released at sites of inflammation. Subsequently, S100A8/S100A9 activities are locally restricted by calcium-induced (S100A8/S100A9)2 tetramer formation hiding the TLR4/MD2-binding site within the tetramer interphase, thus preventing undesirable systemic effects. Loss of this autoinhibitory mechanism in vivo results in TNF-α-driven fatal inflammation, as shown by lack of tetramer formation in crossing S100A9-/- mice with 2 independent TNF-α-transgene mouse strains. Since S100A8/S100A9 is the most abundant DAMP in many inflammatory diseases, specifically blocking the TLR4-binding site of active S100 dimers may represent a promising approach for local suppression of inflammatory diseases, avoiding systemic side effects.

S100 proteins are EF hand type Ca2+ binding proteins thought to function in stimulus-response coupling by binding to and thereby regulating cellular targets in a Ca2+-dependent manner. To isolate such target(s) of the S100P protein we devised an affinity chromatography approach that selects for S100 protein ligands requiring the biologically active S100 dimer for interaction. Hereby we identify ezrin, a membrane/F-actin cross-linking protein, as a dimer-specific S100P ligand. S100P-ezrin complex formation is Ca2+ dependent and most likely occurs within cells because both proteins colocalize at the plasma membrane after growth factor or Ca2+ ionophore stimulation. The S100P binding site is located in the N-terminal domain of ezrin and is accessible for interaction in dormant ezrin, in which binding sites for F-actin and transmembrane proteins are masked through an association between the N- and C-terminal domains. Interestingly, S100P binding unmasks the F-actin binding site, thereby at least partially activating the ezrin molecule. This identifies S100P as a novel activator of ezrin and indicates that activation of ezrin's cross-linking function can occur directly in response to Ca2+ transients.

Small‐colony variants (SCVs) of Staphylococcus aureus represent a slow‐growing subpopulation causing chronic and relapsing infections due to their physiological adaptation on an intracellular lifestyle. In this first proteomic study on physiological changes associated with a natural, clinically derived SCV, its proteomic profile was investigated in comparison to corresponding isogenic strains displaying normal (clinical wild‐type strain, complemented hemB mutant and spontaneous revertant of the clinical SCV) and SCV phenotypes (hemB mutant and gentamicin‐induced SCV). Applying an ultra‐high resolution chromatography and high mass accuracy MSE‐based label‐free relative and absolute protein quantification approach, the whole cytoplasmic proteome of this strain sextet was investigated in a growth phase‐controlled manner covering early‐exponential, late‐exponential and stationary phases. Of 1019 cytoplasmic proteins identified, 154 were found to be differently regulated between strains. All SCV phenotypes showed down‐regulation of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle‐related proteins and of a protein cluster involved in purine/pyrimidine and folate metabolism. In contrast to hemB mutant and gentamicin‐induced SCVs, the clinically derived SCVs showed no prominent up‐regulation of glycolytic proteins. The spontaneous switch into the normal phenotype resulted in up‐regulation of TCA cycle‐related parts, while oxidative stress‐related proteins were down‐regulated. However, the natural revertant from the clinical SCV retained also dominant protein features of the clinical SCV phenotype. In conclusion, physiological changes between normal and SCV S. aureus phenotypes are more complex than reflected by defined electron transport chain‐interrupting mutants and their complemented counterparts.

tTF-NGR consists of the extracellular domain of tissue factor and the peptide GNGRAHA, a ligand of the surface protein aminopeptidase N and of integrin αvβ3. Both surface proteins are upregulated on endothelial cells of tumor vessels. tTF-NGR shows antitumor activity in xenografts and inhibition of tumor blood flow in cancer patients. We performed random TMS(PEG)12 PEGylation of tTF-NGR to improve the antitumor profile of the molecule. PEGylation resulted in an approximately 2-log step decreased procoagulatory activity of the molecule. Pharmacokinetic studies in mice showed a more than 1-log step higher mean area under the curve. Comparison of the LD10 values for both compounds and their lowest effective antitumor dose against human tumor xenografts showed an improved therapeutic range (active/toxic dose in mg/kg body weight) of 1/5 mg/kg for tTF-NGR and 3/>160 mg/kg for TMS(PEG)12 tTF-NGR. Results demonstrate that PEGylation can significantly improve the therapeutic range of tTF-NGR.