The chloroplast adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthase uses the electrochemical proton gradient generated by photosynthesis to produce ATP, the energy currency of all cells. Protons conducted through the membrane-embedded F motor drive ATP synthesis in the F head by rotary catalysis. We determined the high-resolution structure of the complete cFF complex by cryo-electron microscopy, resolving side chains of all 26 protein subunits, the five nucleotides in the F head, and the proton pathway to and from the rotor ring. The flexible peripheral stalk redistributes differences in torsional energy across three unequal steps in the rotation cycle. Plant ATP synthase is autoinhibited by a β-hairpin redox switch in subunit γ that blocks rotation in the dark.

Heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) regulate gene expression in response to environmental stress. The Hsf network in plants is controlled at the transcriptional level by cooperation of distinct Hsf members and by interaction with chaperones. We found two general mechanisms of Hsf regulation by chaperones while analyzing the three major Hsfs, A1, A2, and B1, in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). First, Hsp70 and Hsp90 regulate Hsf function by direct interactions. Hsp70 represses the activity of HsfA1, including its DNA binding, and the coactivator function of HsfB1 in the complex with HsfA2, while the DNA binding activity of HsfB1 is stimulated by Hsp90. Second, Hsp90 affects the abundance of HsfA2 and HsfB1 by modulating hsfA2 transcript degradation involved in regulation of the timing of HsfA2 synthesis. By contrast, HsfB1 binding to Hsp90 and to DNA are prerequisites for targeting this Hsf for proteasomal degradation, which also depends on a sequence element in its carboxyl-terminal domain. Thus, HsfB1 represents an Hsp90 client protein that, by interacting with the chaperone, is targeted for, rather than protected from, degradation. Based on these findings, we propose a versatile regulatory regime involving Hsp90, Hsp70, and the three Hsfs in the control of heat stress response.

Kaposi’s sarcoma associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is the human oncovirus which causes Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS), a highly vascularised tumour originating from lymphatic endothelial cells. Amongst others, the dimeric complex formed by the KSHV virion envelope glycoproteins H and L (gH/gL) is required for entry of herpesviruses into the host cell. We show that the Ephrin receptor tyrosine kinase A2 (EphA2) is a cellular receptor for KSHV gH/gL. EphA2 co-precipitated with both gH/gL and KSHV virions. KSHV infection rates were increased upon over-expression of EphA2. In contrast, antibodies against EphA2 and siRNAs directed against EphA2 inhibited KSHV infection of lymphatic endothelial cells. Pretreatment of KSHV virions with soluble EphA2 resulted in a dose-dependent inhibition of KSHV infection by up to 90%. Similarly, pretreating cells with the soluble EphA2 ligand EphrinA4 but not with EphA2 itself impaired KSHV infection. Notably, deletion of the EphA2 gene essentially abolished KSHV infection of murine vascular endothelial cells. Binding of gH/gL to EphA2 triggered EphA2 phosphorylation and endocytosis, a major pathway of KSHV entry. Quantitative RT-PCR and situ histochemistry revealed a close correlation between KSHV infection and EphA2 expression both in cultured cells derived from KS or lymphatic endothelium and in KS specimens, respectively. Taken together, these results identify EphA2, a tyrosine kinase with known functions in neo-vascularisation and oncogenesis, as receptor for KSHV gH/gL and implicate an important role for EphA2 in KSHV infection especially of endothelial cells and in KS.

Cytochrome bd–type quinol oxidases catalyze the reduction of molecular oxygen to water in the respiratory chain of many human-pathogenic bacteria. They are structurally unrelated to mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidases and are therefore a prime target for the development of antimicrobial drugs. We determined the structure of the Escherichia coli cytochrome bd-I oxidase by single-particle cryo–electron microscopy to a resolution of 2.7 angstroms. Our structure contains a previously unknown accessory subunit CydH, the L-subfamily–specific Q-loop domain, a structural ubiquinone-8 cofactor, an active-site density interpreted as dioxygen, distinct water-filled proton channels, and an oxygen-conducting pathway. Comparison with another cytochrome bd oxidase reveals structural divergence in the family, including rearrangement of high-spin hemes and conformational adaption of a transmembrane helix to generate a distinct oxygen-binding site.

SummaryWe determined the structure of a complete, dimeric F1Fo-ATP synthase from yeast Yarrowia lipolytica mitochondria by a combination of cryo-EM and X-ray crystallography. The final structure resolves 58 of the 60 dimer subunits. Horizontal helices of subunit a in Fo wrap around the c-ring rotor, and a total of six vertical helices assigned to subunits a, b, f, i, and 8 span the membrane. Subunit 8 (A6L in human) is an evolutionary derivative of the bacterial b subunit. On the lumenal membrane surface, subunit f establishes direct contact between the two monomers. Comparison with a cryo-EM map of the F1Fo monomer identifies subunits e and g at the lateral dimer interface. They do not form dimer contacts but enable dimer formation by inducing a strong membrane curvature of ∼100°. Our structure explains the structural basis of cristae formation in mitochondria, a landmark signature of eukaryotic cell morphology.

Mitochondrial ATP synthases form dimers, which assemble into long ribbons at the rims of the inner membrane cristae. We reconstituted detergent-purified mitochondrial ATP synthase dimers from the green algaePolytomellasp. and the yeastYarrowia lipolyticainto liposomes and examined them by electron cryotomography. Tomographic volumes revealed that ATP synthase dimers from both species self-assemble into rows and bend the lipid bilayer locally. The dimer rows and the induced degree of membrane curvature closely resemble those in the inner membrane cristae. Monomers of mitochondrial ATP synthase reconstituted into liposomes do not bend membrane visibly and do not form rows. No specific lipids or proteins other than ATP synthase dimers are required for row formation and membrane remodelling. Long rows of ATP synthase dimers are a conserved feature of mitochondrial inner membranes. They are required for cristae formation and a main factor in mitochondrial morphogenesis.

Our results show that versican released from glioma promotes tumor expansion through glioma-associated microglial/macrophage TLR2 signaling and subsequent expression of MT1-MMP. This signaling cascade might be a novel target for glioma therapies.

Human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8), also known as Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), is etiologically linked to primary effusion lymphoma (PEL). At least 10 KSHVencoded proteins with potential roles in KSHV-associated neoplasia have been identified. However, with few exceptions, these putative oncogenes were analyzed in heterologous systems only using overexpression of single genes. Thus, the pathogenetic relevance of most of these putative oncogenes remains essentially unclear. We used RNA interference (RNAi) to knock down the expression of several KSHV genes in cultured PEL cells carrying the KSHV genome. The viral interferon-regulatory factor-3 (vIRF-3) was found to be required for proliferation and survival of cultured PEL cells. Knock-down of vIRF-3 expression by various RNAi approaches unequivocally resulted in reduced proliferation and increased activity of caspase-3 and/or caspase-7. Thus, vIRF-3 can be seen as a bona fide oncogene of KSHV-associated lymphoma. Surprisingly, although the related Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is usually sufficient to immortalize human B lymphocytes, silencing of vIRF-3 reduced the viability of both EBV ؊ and EBV ؉ PEL cells. This suggests that KSHV is the driving force in the pathogenesis of PEL. IntroductionDNA sequences of human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8), also known as Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), have first been identified in biopsy specimens from AIDS-associated Kaposi sarcoma (KS). 1 It is now clear that KSHV DNA is regularly found in all epidemiologic forms of KS, 2-6 in primary effusion lymphomas (PELs), 7,8 and certain forms of multifocal Castleman disease. 9 In these diseases, only few cells spontaneously reactivate the virus, as shown by expression of lytic cycle genes. 10,11 Thus, virtually all PEL cells and KS spindle cells of late KS lesions carry the KSHV genome in a latent state. 12 Although not formally proven, a remarkably tight epidemiologic relationship clearly suggests a pathogenetic role of KSHV in these malignant disorders. However, the viral genes and pathogenetic mechanisms involved are only partially elucidated. The complete or nearly complete nucleotide sequences of this first human rhadinovirus have been determined from both a PEL cell line 13 and from 2 KS biopsy specimens. 14,15 These showed that the known oncogenes of related viruses like Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) or herpesvirus saimiri are not conserved in KSHV. However, several KSHV genes with transforming potential have since been identified in cell culture and animal models. These include the transmembrane protein K1, 16 Kaposin A encoded by reading frame K12, 17 the KSHV-encoded viral interleukin-8 receptor homolog (vIL8R), also known as viral G-proteincoupled receptor homolog (vGPCR), 18,19 the viral interferon (IFN)-regulatory factor-1 (vIRF-1) encoded by K9, 20,21 and vIRF-3 encoded by K10.5, 22 as well as 3 proteins encoded by the latently expressed so-called "oncogenic cluster," namely the latencyassociated nuclear antigen-1 (LANA-1), the viral cyclin homolog, and the vir...