IFN-α is a potent activator of innate and adaptive immunity, and its administration to preautoimmune (NZB×NZW)F1 mice promotes virulent systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) disease. Given the known contributions of B cells and BAFF to SLE, we evaluated the ability of IFN-α administration to induce disease in wild-type (WT), B cell-deficient, and BAFF-deficient NZM 2328 mice. Whereas WT mice rapidly developed proliferative glomerulonephritis, marked proteinuria, and increased mortality in response to IFN-α administration, B cell-deficient mice developed neither renal pathology nor clinical disease. Moreover, BAFF-deficient mice, despite developing limited glomerular IgG and C3 deposition, also remained free of histological glomerulonephritis and clinical disease. Strikingly, similar T cell expansion and serum IgG responses were observed in adenovirus (Adv)-IFN–treated WT and BAFF-deficient mice despite their disparate pathological and clinical responses, whereas numbers of activated B cells increased in WT mice but not in BAFF-deficient mice. Nonetheless, B cell, plasma cell, and T cell infiltration of the kidneys in Adv-IFN–treated WT mice was similar to that in WT mice treated with Adv-control. Its ability to promote SLE disease in WT mice notwithstanding, IFN-α administration failed to drive the preferential expansion of CD4+ memory T cells that occurs during the natural course of disease, and glomerular infiltration of macrophages failed to associate with development of disease. These results collectively suggest that therapeutic targeting in SLE of BAFF and/or B cells in SLE could be successful even in states of IFN-α overexpression. Moreover, our results document important biological differences between IFN-α–driven and spontaneous natural SLE disease.

Objective To determine the role for APRIL in the development of SLE. Methods Wild-type (WT) NZM 2328, NZM.April-/-, NZM.Baff-/-, and NZM.Baff-/-.April-/- mice were evaluated for lymphocyte phenotype by flow cytometry, for serum total IgG and IgG autoantibody levels by ELISA, for glomerular deposition of IgG and C3 by immunofluorescence, for renal histopathology, and for clinical disease (severe proteinuria). Results In comparison to WT mice, NZM.April-/- mice harbored increased spleen B cells, T cells, and plasma cells (PC); increased serum levels of IgG anti-chromatin antibodies; and decreased numbers of bone marrow (BM) PC. In addition, glomerular deposition of IgG and C3 was similar in NZM.April-/- and WT mice; renal histopathology tended to be more severe in NZM.April-/- mice than in WT mice; and development of clinical disease was identical in NZM.April-/- and WT mice. BM (but not spleen) PC and serum IgG anti-chromatin and anti-dsDNA antibody levels were lower in NZM.Baff-/-.April-/- mice than in NZM.Baff-/- mice, whereas renal immunopathology in each cohort was equally mild. Conclusions APRIL is dispensable for development of full-blown SLE in NZM mice. Moreover, the elimination of both APRIL and BAFF has no discernable effect on development of renal immunopathology or clinical disease beyond that of elimination of BAFF alone. The reduction in BM PC in hosts doubly-deficient in APRIL and BAFF beyond that in hosts deficient only in BAFF raises concern that combined antagonism of APRIL and BAFF may lead to greater immunosuppression without concomitant increase in therapeutic efficacy.

Objective To determine the necessity for any individual BAFF receptor in the development of SLE. Methods Bcma, Taci, and Br3 null mutations were introgressed into NZM 2328 mice. NZM.Bcma−/−, NZM.Taci−/−, and NZM.Br3−/− mice were evaluated for lymphocyte phenotype and BAFF receptor expression by flow cytometry, B cell responsiveness to BAFF by in vitro culture, serum BAFF and total IgG and IgG anti-dsDNA levels by ELISA, renal immunopathology by immunofluorescence and histopathology, and clinical disease. Results NZM.Bcma−/−, NZM.Taci−/−, and NZM.Br3−/− mice failed to surface-express BCMA, TACI, and BR3, respectively. Transitional and follicular B cells from NZM.Br3−/− mice were much less responsive to BAFF than the corresponding cells from wild-type (WT), NZM.Bcma−/−, or NZM.Taci−/− mice. In comparison to WT mice, NZM.Bcma−/− and NZM.Taci−/− mice harbored increased spleen B cells, T cells, and plasma cells (PC), whereas serum total IgG and IgG anti-dsDNA levels were similar. Despite their paucity of B cells, NZM.Br3−/− mice harbored increased T cells and WT-like numbers of PC and levels of IgG anti-dsDNA. Serum BAFF levels were increased in NZM.Taci−/− and NZM.Br3−/− mice but were decreased in NZM.Bcma−/− mice. Despite their phenotypic differences, renal immunopathology and clinical disease in NZM.Bcma−/−, NZM.Taci−/−, and NZM.Br3−/− mice were at least as severe as in WT mice. Conclusions Any single BAFF receptor, including BR3, is dispensable to development of SLE in NZM mice. Development of disease in NZM.Br3−/− mice demonstrates that BAFF/BCMA and/or BAFF/TACI interactions contribute to SLE and that profound, life-long reduction in B cells does not guarantee protection from SLE.

Blockade of the renin-angiotensin system is renoprotective in a variety of chronic nephropathies, but the direct effect of such treatment in active, immune complex-mediated glomerulonephritis is unknown. This study investigated the short-and long-term effects of an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (enalapril) and an angiotensin II type 1 receptor blocker (losartan) in thymic stromal lymphopoietin transgenic (TSLPtg) mice, which develop mixed cryoglobulinemia and severe cryoglobulinemia-associated membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis. Enalapril and losartan each reduced hypertension, proteinuria, glomerular extracellular matrix deposition, and mesangial cell activation in TSLPtg mice. These renoprotective effects were not observed with hydralazine treatment, despite a similar antihypertensive effect. Treatment with enalapril or losartan also decreased renal plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 in TSLPtg mice, assessed by immunohistochemistry and quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase-PCR. None of the treatments affected immune complex deposition or macrophage infiltration. Overall, enalapril-and losartan-treated TSLPtg mice survived significantly longer than untreated TSLPtg mice. These studies demonstrate that angiotensin blockade may provide renoprotective benefits, independent of its BP-lowering effect, in the treatment of active immune complex-mediated glomerulonephritis. Effective treatment for most forms of glomerulonephritis remains an elusive goal. In cases of immune complex-mediated glomerulonephritis, specific treatment options are often limited to immunosuppressive agents such as glucocorticoids and cytotoxic agents, which have the dual burdens of limited efficacy and multiple severe toxicities. An exception is the case of membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (MPGN) consequent to cryoglobulinemia associated with longstanding hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. In that setting, antiviral therapy directed at the underlying HCV infection, typically IFN based, can cause remission of cryoglobulinemia and the MPGN if HCV viremia is eradicated. 1 Unfortunately, this occurs in only a minority of patients with this disorder, and other efficacious therapies either have not been identified or have been tested in only a small number of patients.In recent years, blockade of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI) or angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockers (ARB) has shown compelling renoprotective effects in chronic renal diseases of humans and animal models. 2,3 Most experimental studies of RAS blockade have used chronic nephropathy models resulting from diabetes, 4,5 hypertension, 6,7 nephrotoxicity, 8 reduction of renal

Mice transgenic for thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), under regulation of the lymphocyte-specific promoter Lck, develop cryoglobulinemia and membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (MPGN) similar to the disease in patients. To determine whether infiltrating macrophages, a hallmark of this disease, are deleterious or beneficial in the injury process, we developed Lck-TSLP transgenic mice expressing the human diphtheria toxin receptor (DTR) under control of the monocyte/macrophage-restricted CD11b promoter (Lck-TSLP;CD11b-DTR). Treatment with DT resulted in a marked reduction of monocytes/macrophages in the peritoneal cavity of both CD11b-DTR and Lck-TSLP;CD11b-DTR mice and marked reduction of macrophage infiltration in glomeruli of Lck-TSLP;CD11b-DTR mice. Lck-TSLP;CD11b-DTR mice, with or without toxin treatment, had similar levels of cryoglobulinemia and glomerular immunoglobulin deposition as Lck-TSLP mice. Lck-TSLP;CD11b-DTR mice, treated with toxin, had reduced mesangial matrix expansion, glomerular collagen IV accumulation, expression of the activation marker α-smooth muscle actin and transforming growth factor-β1 in mesangial cells, and proteinuria compared with control mice. Thus, macrophage ablation confers protection in this model and indicates a predominately deleterious role for macrophages in the progression of kidney injury in cryoglobulinemic MPGN.

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Imatinib is a receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor that blocks the activity of c-Abl, c-Kit, and PDGF receptors. We tested the protective effects of imatinib in thymic stromal lymphopoietin transgenic mice, a model of cryoglobulinemia and associated membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (MPGN), in which some glomerular manifestations likely result from PDGF receptor activation. Surprising, administration of imatinib beginning at weaning suppressed production of cryoglobulin, attenuating both the renal injury and systemic features of cryoglobulinemia. Flow cytometry suggested that inhibition of B cell development in the bone marrow likely caused the reduction in cryoglobulin production. In addition, administration of imatinib to thymic stromal lymphopoietin transgenic mice with established MPGN also diminished cryoglobulin production and reversed the renal and systemic lesions. These data suggest that treatment with imatinib may be a novel therapeutic approach for cryoglobulinemia and MPGN in humans.

Objective. To determine whether overexpression of BAFF can promote systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)-like autoimmunity in mice that are otherwise autoimmune-resistant.Methods. We used class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-deficient C57BL/6 (B6) mice as a model of resistance to SLE and Sles1-bearing B6 mice as a model of resistance to the autoantibody-promoting capacity of the Sle1 region. We generated BAFFtransgenic (Tg) counterparts to these respective mice and evaluated lymphocyte phenotype, serologic autoimmunity, renal immunopathology, and clinical disease in the BAFF-Tg and non-Tg mouse sets.Results. Although constitutive BAFF overexpression did not lead to B cell expansion in class II MHC-deficient B6 mice, it did lead to increased serum IgG autoantibody levels. Nevertheless, renal immunopathology was limited, and clinical disease did not develop. In B6 and B6.Sle1 mice, constitutive BAFF overexpression led to increased numbers of B cells and CD4؉ memory cells, as well as increased serum IgG and IgA autoantibody levels. Renal immunopathology was modestly greater in BAFF-Tg mice than in their non-Tg counterparts, but again, clinical disease did not develop.