The pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is complex, and the resulting disease manifestations are heterogeneous. Cytokine dysregulation is pervasive, and their protein and gene expression profiles may serve as markers of disease activity and severity. Importantly, biologic agents that target specific cytokines may represent novel therapies for SLE. Four cytokines (IL-6, TNFα, IFNα, and BLyS) are being evaluated as therapeutic targets in SLE. The present review will examine the roles of each of these cytokines in murine and human SLE, and will summarize results from clinical trials of agents that target these cytokines.

Engagement of the low-affinity Ab receptor FcγRIIb downregulates B cell activation, and its dysfunction is associated with autoimmunity in mice and humans. We engineered the Fc domain of an anti-human CD19 Ab to bind FcγRIIb with high affinity, promoting the coengagement of FcγRIIb with the BCR complex. This Ab (XmAb5871) stimulated phosphorylation of the ITIM of FcγRIIb and suppressed BCR-induced calcium mobilization, proliferation, and costimulatory molecule expression of human B cells from healthy volunteers and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients, as well as B cell proliferation induced by LPS, IL-4, or BAFF. XmAb5871 suppressed humoral immunity against tetanus toxoid and reduced serum IgM, IgG, and IgE levels in SCID mice engrafted with SLE or healthy human PBMC. XmAb5871 treatment also increased survival of mice engrafted with PBMC from a unique SLE patient. Unlike anti-CD20 Ab, coengagement of FcγRIIb and BCR complex did not promote B cell depletion in human PBMC cultures or in mice. Thus, amplification of the FcγRIIb inhibitory pathway in activated B cells may represent a novel B cell-targeted immunosuppressive therapeutic approach for SLE and other autoimmune diseases that should avoid the complications associated with B cell depletion.

Type I IFNs are potent regulators of innate and adaptive immunity and are implicated in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. Here we report that clinical and pathological lupus nephritis and serum anti-nuclear Ab levels are greatly attenuated in New Zealand Mixed (NZM) 2328 mice deficient in type I IFN receptors (IFNAR). To determine whether the inflammatory environment in NZM 2328 mice leads to IFNAR-regulated changes in dendritic cells (DC), the number, activation, and function of DC subsets were compared in 2- and 5-mo-old (clinically healthy) female NZM and NZM-IFNAR−/− mice. Numbers of activated CD40high plasmacytoid DC (pDC) were significantly increased in renal lymph nodes of 2-mo-old NZM but not NZM-IFNAR−/− mice, suggesting an early IFNAR-dependent expansion and activation of pDC at disease sites. Relative to NZM spleens, NZM-IFNAR−/− spleens in 5-mo-old mice were significantly decreased in size and contained reduced numbers of conventional DC subsets, but not pDC. Splenic and renal lymph node NZM-IFNAR−/− DC analyzed directly ex vivo expressed significantly less CD40, CD86, and PDL1 than did NZM DC. Upon activation with synthetic TLR9 ligands in vitro, splenic NZM-IFNAR−/− DC produced less IL-12p40/70 and TNF-α than did NZM DC. The limited IFNAR−/− DC response to endogenous activating stimuli correlated with reduced numbers of splenic activated memory CD4+ T cells and CD19+ B cells in older mice. Thus, IFNAR signaling significantly increases DC numbers, acquisition of Ag presentation competence, and proinflammatory function before onset of clinically apparent lupus disease.

TNF-␣ has both proinflammatory and immunoregulatory functions. Whereas a protective role for TNF administration in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)-prone (New Zealand Black ؋ New Zealand White)F 1 mice has been established, it remains uncertain whether this effect segregates at the individual TNFR. We generated SLE-prone New Zealand Mixed 2328 mice genetically deficient in TNFR1, in TNFR2, or in both receptors. Doubly-deficient mice developed accelerated pathological and clinical nephritis with elevated levels of circulating IgG anti-dsDNA autoantibodies and increased numbers of CD4 ؉ T lymphocytes, especially activated memory (CD44 high CD62L low ) CD4 ؉ T cells. We show that these cells expressed a Th17 gene profile, were positive for IL-17 intracellular staining by FACS, and produced exogenous IL-17 in culture. In contrast, immunological, pathological, and clinical profiles of mice deficient in either TNFR alone did not differ from those in each other or from those in wild-type controls. Thus, total ablation of TNF-␣-mediated signaling was highly deleterious to the host in the New Zealand Mixed 2328 SLE model. These observations may have profound ramifications for the use of TNF and TNFR antagonists in human SLE and related autoimmune disorders, as well as demonstrate, for the first time, the association of the Th17 pathway with an animal model of SLE.

IFN-α is a potent activator of innate and adaptive immunity, and its administration to preautoimmune (NZB×NZW)F1 mice promotes virulent systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) disease. Given the known contributions of B cells and BAFF to SLE, we evaluated the ability of IFN-α administration to induce disease in wild-type (WT), B cell-deficient, and BAFF-deficient NZM 2328 mice. Whereas WT mice rapidly developed proliferative glomerulonephritis, marked proteinuria, and increased mortality in response to IFN-α administration, B cell-deficient mice developed neither renal pathology nor clinical disease. Moreover, BAFF-deficient mice, despite developing limited glomerular IgG and C3 deposition, also remained free of histological glomerulonephritis and clinical disease. Strikingly, similar T cell expansion and serum IgG responses were observed in adenovirus (Adv)-IFN–treated WT and BAFF-deficient mice despite their disparate pathological and clinical responses, whereas numbers of activated B cells increased in WT mice but not in BAFF-deficient mice. Nonetheless, B cell, plasma cell, and T cell infiltration of the kidneys in Adv-IFN–treated WT mice was similar to that in WT mice treated with Adv-control. Its ability to promote SLE disease in WT mice notwithstanding, IFN-α administration failed to drive the preferential expansion of CD4+ memory T cells that occurs during the natural course of disease, and glomerular infiltration of macrophages failed to associate with development of disease. These results collectively suggest that therapeutic targeting in SLE of BAFF and/or B cells in SLE could be successful even in states of IFN-α overexpression. Moreover, our results document important biological differences between IFN-α–driven and spontaneous natural SLE disease.

Tumor necrosis factor-like cytokine 1A (TL1A, TNFSF15) is implicated in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), modulating the location and severity of intestinal inflammation and fibrosis. TL1A expression is increased in inflamed gut mucosa and associated with fibrostenosing Crohn's disease. Tl1a-overexpression in mice lead to spontaneous ileitis, and exacerbated induced proximal colitis and fibrosis. IBD is associated with shifts in the gut microbiome, but the effect of differing microbial populations and their interaction with TL1A on fibrosis has not been investigated. We demonstrate that the pro-fibrotic and inflammatory phenotype resulting from Tl1a-overexpression is abrogated in the absence of resident microbiota. To evaluate if this is due to the absence of a unique bacterial population, as opposed to any bacteria per se, we gavaged germ-free (GF) wild-type and Tl1a-transgenic (Tl1a-Tg) mice with stool from specific pathogen free (SPF) mice and a healthy human donor (Hu). Reconstitution with SPF, but not Hu microbiota, resulted in increased intestinal collagen deposition and fibroblast activation in Tl1a-Tg mice. Notably, there was reduced fibroblast migration and activation under GF conditions compared to native conditions. We then identified several candidate organisms that correlated directly with increased fibrosis in reconstituted mice and showed that these organisms directly impact fibroblast function in vitro. Thus, Tl1a-mediated intestinal fibrosis and fibroblast activation are dependent on specific microbial populations.

Objective. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) isMethods. Fifty-six single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) across STAT1 and STAT4 on chromosome 2 were genotyped using the Illumina platform, as part of an extensive association study in a large collection of 9,923 lupus patients and control subjects from different racial groups. DNA samples were obtained from the peripheral blood of patients with SLE and control subjects. Principal components analyses and population-based case-control association analyses were performed, and the P values, false discovery rate q values, and odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals were calculated.

Objective To determine the role for APRIL in the development of SLE. Methods Wild-type (WT) NZM 2328, NZM.April-/-, NZM.Baff-/-, and NZM.Baff-/-.April-/- mice were evaluated for lymphocyte phenotype by flow cytometry, for serum total IgG and IgG autoantibody levels by ELISA, for glomerular deposition of IgG and C3 by immunofluorescence, for renal histopathology, and for clinical disease (severe proteinuria). Results In comparison to WT mice, NZM.April-/- mice harbored increased spleen B cells, T cells, and plasma cells (PC); increased serum levels of IgG anti-chromatin antibodies; and decreased numbers of bone marrow (BM) PC. In addition, glomerular deposition of IgG and C3 was similar in NZM.April-/- and WT mice; renal histopathology tended to be more severe in NZM.April-/- mice than in WT mice; and development of clinical disease was identical in NZM.April-/- and WT mice. BM (but not spleen) PC and serum IgG anti-chromatin and anti-dsDNA antibody levels were lower in NZM.Baff-/-.April-/- mice than in NZM.Baff-/- mice, whereas renal immunopathology in each cohort was equally mild. Conclusions APRIL is dispensable for development of full-blown SLE in NZM mice. Moreover, the elimination of both APRIL and BAFF has no discernable effect on development of renal immunopathology or clinical disease beyond that of elimination of BAFF alone. The reduction in BM PC in hosts doubly-deficient in APRIL and BAFF beyond that in hosts deficient only in BAFF raises concern that combined antagonism of APRIL and BAFF may lead to greater immunosuppression without concomitant increase in therapeutic efficacy.