Both surface and subsurface salinity variability associated with positive Indian Ocean dipole (pIOD) events and its impacts on the sea surface temperature (SST) evolution are investigated through analysis of observational/reanalysis data and sensitivity experiments with a one-dimensional mixed layer model. During the pIOD, negative (positive) sea surface salinity (SSS) anomalies appear in the central-eastern equatorial Indian Ocean (southeastern tropical Indian Ocean). In addition to these SSS anomalies, positive (negative) salinity anomalies are found near the pycnocline in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean (southern tropical Indian Ocean). A salinity balance analysis shows that these subsurface salinity anomalies are mainly generated by zonal and vertical salt advection anomalies induced by anomalous currents associated with the pIOD. These salinity anomalies stabilize (destabilize) the upper ocean stratification in the central-eastern equatorial (southeastern tropical) Indian Ocean. By decomposing observed densities into contribution from temperature and salinity anomalies, it is shown that the contribution from anomalous salinity stratification is comparable to that from anomalous thermal stratification. Furthermore, impacts of these salinity anomalies on the SST evolution are quantified for the first time using a one-dimensional mixed layer model. Since enhanced salinity stratification in the central-eastern equatorial Indian Ocean suppresses vertical mixing, significant warming of about 0.3°–0.5°C occurs. On the other hand, stronger vertical mixing associated with reduced salinity stratification results in significant SST cooling of about 0.2°–0.5°C in the southeastern tropical Indian Ocean. These results suggest that variations in salinity may potentially play a crucial role in the evolution of the pIOD.

Sustained Indian Ocean Observing System and societal needs, and a framework for more regional and coastal monitoring. This paper reviews the societal and scientific motivations, current status, and future directions of IndOOS, while also discussing the need for enhanced coastal, shelf, and regional observations. The challenges of sustainability and implementation are also addressed, including capacity building, best practices, and integration of resources. The utility of IndOOS ultimately depends on the identification of, and engagement with, end-users and decision-makers and on the practical accessibility and transparency of data for a range of products and for decision-making processes. Therefore we highlight current progress, issues and challenges related to end user engagement with IndOOS, as well as the needs of the data assimilation and modeling communities. Knowledge of the status of the Indian Ocean climate and ecosystems and predictability of its future, depends on a wide range of socioeconomic and environmental data, a significant part of which is provided by IndOOS.

Mechanisms of salinity anomalies associated with the positive Indian Ocean Dipole (pIOD) are investigated through a series of sensitivity experiments and an online budget analysis using a regional ocean model. Special emphasis is placed on the contribution from the rectified effects due to high-frequency variability, which was not quantitatively discussed in previous studies. The results from sensitivity experiments show that positive sea surface salinity (SSS) anomalies in the southeastern tropical Indian Ocean are primarily caused by reduction in precipitation and partly by enhanced evaporation due to increased wind speed, while negative SSS anomalies in the central-eastern equatorial Indian Ocean are generated by zonal advection anomalies induced by anomalous wind stress, consistent with previous studies. Completely new results are that the modulation of nonlinear salinity advection associated with mesoscale eddies also plays an important role in determining the spatial pattern of SSS anomalies, especially in the southeastern tropical Indian Ocean. On the other hand, subsurface salinity anomalies are almost entirely caused by wind stress effects mediated by ocean dynamical processes. Further decomposition of advective anomalies suggests that they are mainly explained by the pIOD-related current anomalies governed by equatorial wave dynamics. However, a vertical shift of nonlinear freshening due to high-frequency variability also substantially contributes to the generation of positive subsurface salinity anomalies in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean. Our results show that large-scale oceanic changes in response to the pIOD-related atmospheric anomalies are the key drivers of the observed salinity anomalies, while some nonlinear effects also seem to be at work. Plain Language SummaryThe positive Indian Ocean Dipole (pIOD) is characterized by anomalous cooling in the eastern tropical Indian Ocean and warming in the western tropical Indian Ocean and exerts significant impacts on the local and global climate. The signatures of the pIOD have been detected not only in the upper ocean temperature but also in salinity, which is a fundamental parameter along with temperature. Accompanied by the anomalous atmospheric circulation and precipitation pattern, surface and subsurface salinity in the tropical Indian Ocean is known to undergo significant variations associated with the pIOD. In this study, the relative importance of various factors in the generation of these salinity variation and physical processes behind them are quantitatively assessed using a regional ocean model. The results demonstrate that the anomalous large-scale ocean circulation induced by wind anomalies is the dominant factor that causes significant salinity variation, while anomalous precipitation and evaporation also play a secondary role. More comprehensive analyses reveal that contributions from mesoscale eddies and short timescale variations, which have been overlooked in past studies, are also important for the generation of salinity anomalie...

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