Samara (winged fruit) can be dispersed easily by wind and may be a crucial factor for angiosperm spread and diversification. In a narrow sense, a samara is an indehiscent dry fruit with wing(s) developed from fruit pericarp, while in a broad sense samaras also include all winged fruits with wings developed from both pericarp and perianth or bracts. According to the wing shape and growth patterns of samaras, we divided samaras into six types, i.e. single-winged, lanceolate-winged, rib-winged, sepal-winged, bract-winged, and perigynous samaras. Perigynous samaras can be further classified into two forms, i.e. round-winged and butterfly-winged samaras. Accordingly, the aerodynamic behavior of samaras can be classified into five types, autogyro, rolling autogyro, undulator, helicopter, and tumbler. The rib-winged and round-winged samaras can be found in Laurales, a basal angiosperm, and may represent the primitive type of early samaras. In the derived clades, samaras evolved enlarged but unequal wings and decreased wing loading (the ratio of fruit weight to wing size), which is likely an adaptation to gentle wind and secondary dispersal through water or ground wind. The wings of some samaras (such as sepal-winged and bract-winged samaras) may have multiple functions including wind dispersal, physical defense for the seeds, and adjust seed germination strategy. The pantropical family Malpighiaceae is extraordinarily rich in samara types, which is likely related to its multiple inter-continent dispersal in history, which is known as "Malpighiaceae Route". Therefore, Malpighiaceae can be used as a model system for the studies on samara adaptation and evolution. We identified the following issues that deserve further examination in future studies using both ecological and evo-devo methods: 1) the adaption of different types of samaras in dispersal processes, 2) the molecular and developmental mechanism of sepal-and bract-wings, and 3) the evolution of samara types and their effects on angiosperm diversification.
to Indonesia and across the Pacific Islands. The genus is considered to possess activities of detoxification, antiarthritis and abirritation and is used as antidote and demulcent 1. In recent years, several papers have described phytochemistry investigations of A. gramnifolia and was found to be rich in stilbenoids and triterpenes 2-5. Motivated by a search for bioactive compounds from this plant, further chemical investigation were carried out. As a result, a new phenolic compounds (1), together with three known phenols (2-4), were isolated from this plant. In addition, the antitobacco mosaic virus activities of compounds 1-4 were evaluated. This article deals with the isolation, structural elucidation and biological activities of the isolated compounds. EXPERIMENTAL Optical rotations were measured with a Horiba SEPA-300 polarimeter. UV spectra were obtained using a Shimadzu UV-2401A spectrophotometer. A Tenor 27 spectrophotometer was used for scanning IR spectroscopy with KBr pellets. 1 D and 2 D NMR spectra were recorded on DRX-500 spectrometers with TMS as internal standard. Unless otherwise specified, chemical shifts (δ) were expressed in ppm with reference to the solvent signals. HRESIMS was performed on an API QSTAR time-of-flight spectrometer and a VG autospec-3000 spectrometer, respectively. Preparative HPLC was performed
Ferns are important components of plant communities on earth, but their genomes are generally very large, with many redundant genes, making whole genome sequencing of ferns prohibitively expensive and time-consuming. This means there is a significant lack of fern reference genomes, making molecular biology research difficult. The gametophytes of ferns can survive independently, are responsible for sexual reproduction and the feeding of young sporophytes, and play an important role in the alternation of generations. For this study, we selected Adiantum flabellulatum as it has both ornamental and medicinal value and is also an indicator plant of acidic soil. The full-length transcriptome sequencing of its gametophytes was carried out using PacBio three-generation sequencing technology. A total of 354,228 transcripts were obtained, and 231,705 coding sequences (CDSs) were predicted, including 5,749 transcription factors (TFs), 2,214 transcription regulators (TRs) and 4,950 protein kinases (PKs). The transcripts annotated by non-redundant protein sequence database (NR), Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG), eukaryotic ortholog groups (KOG), Swissprot, protein family (Pfma), nucleotide sequence database (NT) and gene ontology (GO) were 251,501, 197,474, 193,630, 194,639, 195,956, 113,069 and 197,883, respectively. In addition, 138,995 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) and 111,793 long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) were obtained. We selected nine chlorophyll synthase genes for qRT-PCR, and the results showed that the full-length transcript sequences and the annotation information were reliable. This study can provide a reference gene set for subsequent gene expression quantification.
Brassinosteroids (BRs) are a class of polyhydroxysteroid plant hormones; they play important roles in the development and stress resistance of plants. The research on BRs has mainly been carried out in angiosperms, but in ferns—research is still limited to the physiological level and is not in-depth. In this study, Adiantum flabellulatum gametophytes were used as materials and treated with 10−6 M brassinolide (BL). The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) responsive to BRs were identified by transcriptome sequencing, GO, KEGG analysis, as well as a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. From this, a total of 8394 DEGs were screened. We found that the expressions of photosynthetic genes were widely inhibited by high concentrations of BL in A. flabellulatum gametophytes. Moreover, we detected many BR synthase genes, except BR6ox2, which may be why castasterone (CS) rather than BL was detected in ferns. Additionally, we identified (for the first time) that the expressions of BR synthase genes (CYP90B1, CYP90C1, CYP90D1, CPD, and BR6ox1) were negatively regulated by BL in fern gametophytes, which indicated that ferns, including gametophytes, also needed the regulatory mechanism for maintaining BR homeostasis. Based on transcriptome sequencing, this study can provide a large number of gene expression data for BRs regulating the development of fern gametophytes.
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