The placenta, supporting the growth and development of the fetus, are rich in amino acids, peptides, vitamins, trace elements and growth factors, nutrients and biological active components. Placental therapy was applied to promote from the recovery of diseases and tissue regeneration since the early 1900s. Since then, placental therapy was applied in various clinical applications as they were shown to exhibit remarkable therapeutic attributes ranging from anti-oxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, pain reduction, hair growth promotion, health improvement, cellular proliferation, tissue regeneration and wound healing properties in vivo. This review further summarizes the historical aspects, cellular mechanism, nutrient content and therapeutics properties of the placenta.

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a term describing the highly selective barrier formed by the endothelial cells (ECs) of the central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis by restricting movement across the BBB. An intact BBB is critical for normal brain functions as it maintains brain homeostasis, modulates immune cell transport, and provides protection against pathogens and other foreign substances. However, it also prevents drugs from entering the CNS to treat neurodegenerative diseases. Stem cells, on the other hand, have been reported to bypass the BBB and successfully home to their target in the brain and initiate repair, making them a promising approach in cellular therapy, especially those related to neurodegenerative disease. This review article discusses the mechanism behind the successful homing of stem cells to the brain, their potential role as a drug delivery vehicle, and their applications in neurodegenerative diseases.

The immune system is a complex network of specialized cells and organs that recognises and reacts against foreign pathogens while remaining unresponsive to host tissues. This ability to self-tolerate is known as immunological tolerance. Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system fails to differentiate between self and non-self antigens and releases autoantibodies to attack our own cells. Anti-idiotypic (anti-ID) antibodies are important in maintaining a balanced idiotypic regulatory network by neutralising and inhibiting the secretion of autoantibodies. Recently, anti-ID antibodies have been advanced as an alternative form of immunotherapy as they can specifically target autoantibodies, cause less toxicity and side effects, and could provide long-lasting immunity. This review article discusses the immunomodulatory potential of anti-ID antibodies for the treatment of autoimmune diseases.

Cartilage diseases refer to an umbrella of joint disorders, joint injuries and cartilage tumors that are largely characterized by degenerative chondrocyte changes in joints.Osteoarthritis(OA) is the most common form of chronic cartilage diseases, affecting 250 million people and is the fourth leading cause of disability worldwide. The widely used pharmacological treatments for OA have shown limited benefits, and further studies are required. Stem cells have been proposed as regenerative cell therapy for OA to repair and replace the injured cells and tissues with new ones, due to their potential for self-renewal and differentiation into cartilage-forming chondrocytes and immune-modulating capabilities. A number of preclinical and clinical studies have confirmed the potential for mesenchymal stem cells as a novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of OA. In this review, we look at the promising evidence for stem cell use in OA treatment.

Mitochondria are major organelles that produce energy for cellular metabolism and are vital to proper cell functioning. Metabolic dysregulation is a critical contributing factor to the initiation and development of degenerative and autoimmune diseases, thus is present in cartilage disorders such as osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Mitochondrial dysfunction in cartilage diseases is especially interesting because it may present a promising therapeutic and anti-ageing target. By understanding the mechanism of mitochondrial dysfunction, we can aim to upregulate the role of mitochondria in treating cartilage diseases. In this review, we look at the role of mitochondrial dysfunction in degenerative cartilage diseases and mitochondria as tools in the treatment of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.

Autologous Active Specific Immunotherapy (AASI) is a type of immunotherapy that targets complementary autoantibodies which suppress the specific immune response using anti-idiotypic antibodies. AASI entails removing immune cells (dendritic cells) from the patient's blood and subjecting them in a lab setting to a particular tumour antigen (proteins detected on the surface of cancer cells). AASI is a personalized treatment approach that has been used to treat various types of cancer, including melanoma, osteosarcoma and breast cancer. Clinical trials have shown promising results, with some patients experiencing complete remission or long-term disease control. Although AASI has shown potential as a cancer treatment, further research is needed to optimize its effectiveness and safety. AASI is a complex and expensive therapy, and its use is currently limited to specialized cancer treatment centres.

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N-glycolneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc) is a sialic acid mainly found in mammalian species. It is absent in humans. This is due to an irreversible mutation of the CMP-Neu5Ac hydroxylase (CMAH) enzyme in humans, rendering them unable to synthesize Neu5Gc. The human body identifies Neu5Gc as “foreign”; and anti-Neu5Gc antibodies are produced by the human body in response to any metabolically incorporated, diet-derived Neu5Gc, as found in ingested red meats and dairy products.Varying quantities of Neu5Gc is found in some approved biotherapeutics used for the treatment of numerous medical conditions. This leads to the debate of potential risks and/or benefits of Neu5Gc in humans. The effects of the interaction between anti-Neu5Gc antibodies and antigenic Neu5Gc-containing biotherapeutics in humans are largely unknown and there are many discrepancies in terms of scientific evidence. This article reviews and discusses the current knowledge in the understanding of Neu5Gc in the human body and its potential significance.