α- and β-pinene are well-known representatives of the monoterpenes group, and are found in many plants’ essential oils. A wide range of pharmacological activities have been reported, including antibiotic resistance modulation, anticoagulant, antitumor, antimicrobial, antimalarial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-Leishmania, and analgesic effects. This article aims to summarize the most prominent effects of α- and β-pinene, namely their cytogenetic, gastroprotective, anxiolytic, cytoprotective, anticonvulsant, and neuroprotective effects, as well as their effects against H2O2-stimulated oxidative stress, pancreatitis, stress-stimulated hyperthermia, and pulpal pain. Finally, we will also discuss the bioavailability, administration, as well as their biological activity and clinical applications.

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Understanding the species richness and β-diversity patterns along elevation gradients can aid in formulating effective conservation strategies particularly in areas where local anthropogenic stresses and climate change are quite significant as in the Himalaya. Thus, we studied macrolichen richness and β-diversity along elevational gradients at three sites, namely Kashmir (2200 to 3800 m a.m.s.l), Uttarakhand (2000–3700 m a.m.s.l) and Sikkim (1700 to 4000 m a.m.s.l) which cover much of the Indian Himalayan Arc. In all, 245 macrolichen species belonging to 77 genera and 26 families were collected from the three sites. Only 11 species, 20 genera and 11 families were common among the three transects. Despite the differences in species composition, the dominant functional groups in the three sites were the same: foliose, fruticose and corticolous forms. The hump-shaped elevation pattern in species richness was exhibited by most of the lichen groups, though an inverse hump-shaped pattern was also observed in certain cases. β-diversity (βsor) based on all pairs of comparisons along an elevation gradient varied from 0.48 to 0.58 in Kashmir, 0.03 to 0.63 in Uttarakhand and 0.46 to 0.77 in Sikkim. The contribution of turnover to β-diversity was more than nestedness at all the three transects. Along elevation β-diversity and its components of turnover and nestedness varied significantly with elevation. While species turnover increased significantly along the elevation in all the three transects, nestedness decreased significantly in Kashmir and Sikkim transects but increased significantly in the Uttarakhand transect. Except for the Kashmir Himalayan elevation transect, stepwise β-diversity and its components of turnover and nestedness did not vary significantly with elevation. The present study, the first of its kind in the Himalayan region, clearly brings out that macrolichen species richness, β-diversity, and its components of turnover and nestedness vary along the elevation gradients across the Himalayan Arc. It also highlights that contribution of turnover to β-diversity is higher in comparison to nestedness at all the three transects. The variations in species richness and diversity along elevation gradients underpin the importance of considering elevational gradients in planning conservation strategies.

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