In recent years, because of increased resistance to conventional antimicrobials, many researchers have started to study the synthesis of new antibiotics to control the disease-causing effects of infectious pathogens. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are among the newest antibiotics; these peptides are integral compounds in all kinds of organisms and play a significant role in microbial ecology, and critically contribute to the innate immunity of organisms by destroying invading microorganisms. Moreover, AMPs may encourage cells to produce chemokines, stimulate angiogenesis, accelerate wound healing, and influence programmed cell death in multicellular organisms. Bacteria differ in their inherent susceptibility and resistance mechanisms to these peptides when responding to the antimicrobial effects of AMPs. Generally, the development of AMP resistance mechanisms is driven by direct competition between bacterial species, and host and pathogen interactions. Several studies have shown diverse mechanisms of bacterial resistance to AMPs, for example, some bacteria produce proteases and trapping proteins; some modify cell surface charge, change membrane fluidity, and activate efflux pumps; and some species make use of biofilms and exopolymers, and develop sensing systems by selective gene expression. A closer understanding of bacterial resistance mechanisms may help in developing novel therapeutic approaches for the treatment of infections caused by pathogenic organisms that are successful in developing extensive resistance to AMPs. Based on these observations, this review discusses the properties of AMPs, their targeting mechanisms, and bacterial resistance mechanisms against AMPs.

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Several studies have been devoted to clear functionalization of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) in different fields such as cellular and molecular biology, microbiology, immunology and physiology. In line with the high diagnostic value of AuNPs, its therapeutic application has been intensively developed in tumour therapy, in recent years. One of the best clinical applications of AuNPs is its use in targeted delivery of anti-cancer drugs. Recent studies have focused on the application of AuNPs to treat melanoma - a malignant neoplasm sourced from melanocytes skin cells - with poor prognosis in advanced stages. Furthermore, early diagnosis can be successfully achieved through utilizing this technique even at early stages with localized distribution. Herein, this study details the previous researches focusing on the use of AuNPs as a novel diagnostic and therapeutic option in management of melanoma.

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Mothers’ constitute is a very important part of infants’ social environment and mediate their experience with the surrounding world. Postpartum depression, which is considered one of the most common and important psychiatric disorders, affects 10–15% of mothers, its causes are different. By investigating various sources, some effects of this disorder have been observed on the cognitive development of children, particularly among boys, such as language, intelligence quotient (IQ), and behavioral problems. Thus, it is imperative to study the effects of postpartum depression on children’s growth and development and to identify methods of reducing these effects. This review indicates that postpartum depression in mothers reduces children’s cognitive performance. The adverse effects of postpartum depression on children’s development seem to be mediated by the mother’s interpersonal behavior and the infant gender. The review of previous studies shows that postpartum depression reduces children’s cognitive performance by impairing maternal mental and behavioral care.

IntroductionProbiotics are nonpathogenic living organisms present in some foods which have positive effects on the health of the hosts if they enter the body in sufficient amounts. Imani et al 1 concluded that probiotic therapy as an inexpensive and non-invasive strategy can reduce pathophysiologic symptoms and improve various liver diseases with no complications. Khani et al 2,3 reported various potential positive effects, including the improve health of the digestive system, increase body immunity, reduced symptoms of lactose intolerance, decreased allergy, reduced risk of particular cancers, treatment of colitis, reduced serum cholesterol concentration, reduced blood pressure in those with hypertension, alleviated respiratory and Helicobacter pylori infections. In nature, the infants of animals receive protective flora from mothers or the environment. Nevertheless, contemporary childbirth and postpartum care methods limit contact with mothers and provide synthetic foods and environments. As a result, some natural parts of the microflora of infants' digestive system, which cause resistance to diseases do not exist anymore. Diet, antibiotics, and stress also affect the flora in adults. The application of probiotic supplements can compensate for this deficiency. Therefore, the use of these compounds does not create something, which does not naturally exist. Rather, it fully regenerates the protective ability of flora. 4 Numerous studies have been conducted on probiotics with different results. The present study and similar studies attempt to provide a scientific basis for the concept of probiotics and delineate the way modern probiotics are manufactured. This hopefully paves the way for required studies and provides a basis for a more rational approach to the selection of probiotic strains in the future. Prebiotics, Probiotics, and SymbioticPrebiotics are food nutrients which are indigestible or minimally digestible in the digestive system and their positive effect on human health is through the stimulation of growth or increase in the activity of a limited number of probiotic bacteria in the large intestine. This role is played by minimally digested and fermentable carbohydrates in the small intestine, leading to the growth of Bifidobacteria and some gram-positive bacteria. In fact, carbohydrates pass the small intestine, move to lower parts, and become accessible to the bacteria in the large intestine. Lactulose, galactooligosaccharides, fructooligosaccharides, inulin, and their hydrolyzed metabolites, maltooligosaccharide, are among prebiotics which are usually used in human nutrition. Probiotics improve the performance and health status of birds through competitive exclusion and creating a balance in the microbial population in the digestive system. 5 Based on Fuller's 6 definitions, probiotics are microbial nutritional supplements which exert positive effects on the host by improving the microbial balance in the intestine. This definition emphasizes the living nature of probiotics. Synbiotics are a combinati...